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Bodor Béla: „Menni!... És maradni” (Tandori Dezső: A Legjobb Nap) • 252 Márton László: Az elbeszélés mint kulissza (Dunajcsik Mátyás: Repülési kézikönyv) • 260 Nemes Z. Márió: A kínnal telt ház (Lovas Ildikó: Spanyol menyasszony) • 264 Perneczky Géza: A magyar fotóművészet emancipálódása (Szilágyi Sándor: Neoavantgárd tendenciák a magyar fotóművészetben 1965–1984) • 268 Antal László: Az organikus fejlődés jegyében. A rendszerváltás történelmi szemszögből és a mindennapokban (Kornai János: Szocializmus, kapitalizmus, demokrácia és rendszerváltás) • 288
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In 1845–1848, the movement from the Lutheran Church to the Russian Orthodox Church took place in all the southern Estonian counties and about 17% of the peasants in southern Estonia converted to Orthodoxy. Until then, Orthodoxy was mainly the religion of the local Russians and Seto (Setu) people, and remained influential among the poluverniks of eastern Estonia, the Russians who were officially Lutheran but followed many Orthodox rites (including partially Estonianised Russians). The article gives an overview of the spread of Orthodoxy in the current Estonian territory and in Setomaa from the 11th century until 1845, focusing on the establishment of different Russian Orthodox churches and chapels (including the Seto tsässons). The Russian Old Believers, who settled in Estonia at the end of the 17th century are not dealt with in detail in this article. This article briefly describes Orthodoxy in Setumaa, an area which was partially or wholly incorporated into Russia for centuries (specifically as a part of Pskov), prior to accession with the Estonian territory in 1920, and therefore under the direct influence of Orthodoxy, unlike the rest of Estonia. From the Setos, the Old Believers and the Russians of present-day eastern Estonia, Orthodoxy might well have spread among Estonians, to some extent. This is attested to by the gatherings, near the Pühtitsa chapel and other Orthodox chapels, that have been taken place since the 16th–17th centuries and which have been attended by Lutheran Estonians as well as Orthodox Russians. Orthodoxy in Estonian towns and eastern Estonia was promoted by Russian military campaigns and conquests, especially during the Livonian War in 1558– 1583 (with the help of the mission of the Petseri (Pechory) Monastery in Setumaa), when dozens of Orthodox churches were erected in Estonia, plus at least one convent in Tartu. Following the Russian defeat in the Livonian War, some Russian-founded Orthodox churches continued to function for some time under the Polish and Swedish reigns.
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The present article discusses the issue of elimination of the fear of the dead as it appears in archaic cultures; first and foremost in connection with laments as a folklore genre and lamenting as a ritual practice. Primarily, it is the relevant Balto-Finnic and North Russian traditions that will be observed, in which lamenting has retained its original function of balancing the relationships between the spheres of the living and the dead, and of establishing borderlines, as well as that of restoring the interrupted social cohesion. Lament texts can be viewed as a multifunctional genre that may possibly even be addressed variously, but wherein nevertheless the interests of the community stand foremost, whereas personal psychological problems come only after them and as related to them. The lamenter’s role and function in the society will also be examined. The second part of the article will, in connection with overcoming the fear of the dead, discuss exhumation – a phenomenon that has not been preserved in the North European cultures but that can, in the light of treated bones or incomplete skeletons in the graves of Bronze and Iron Ages, be assumed to have at one time existed even in Estonia. In cultures where exhumation has remained a living practice up to the present (Greek culture, for instance), it has probably also solved problems linked to the fear of the dead, since part of the person’s skeleton is posthumously reincorporated into the society of the living, in the shape of an amulet or a talisman. The relevant rituals have been performed to the accompaniment of laments. The final part of the article will take a look at certain textual examples of the Seto laments for the dead, which may have preserved a distant memory of the practices connected with exhumation.
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The article dwells upon two types of Komi ritual lamentation: funeral laments and the ones used for expelling bedbugs from the house or for ridding the fields of burdock. The focus is on the magic aspect of ritual lamentation, together with the analysis of the genres of laments within protective rites – although the texts used in such rites actually operate as charms and incantation, the context of the custom reveals a number of elements which are intrinsic of the logic of presenting laments. The author comes to the conclusion, by way of analysing the texts performed at funerals and ward-off rites that besides the poesy, uniform popular terminology and recitative presentation, these texts have similar performing characteristics and unitary magic. As an integrated whole, these characteristics make it possible to use the same terminology with regard to the texts used in protective magic rites and the ones of funeral customs.
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The article analyses bird sounds and the expressions thereof in Komi folk music. Relying on a number of examples, the author introduces the potential emergence of linguistic, mythological and musical connections, and the relevant research in Komi folklore, observing the most meaningful levels of interpreting and understanding the world of birds in folk tradition. Undoubtedly, the study of folk music is not only associated with the research of musical thought, but also pre-necessitates the analysis of mythological, folkloric and linguistic conceptions which serve as the basis for the ethical needs of people. The presented cross-section of folk culture makes it possible to see the connection between the linguistic, mythological and musical phenomena. Based on the given analysis, it can be said that in certain situations, the chronotopy and in-depth structure of bird images (at linguistic, mytho-epical and musical levels) may indeed act as the primordium for the plot. Folkloric texts generated in such a manner are cosmological in their structure, as they reflect the universal principles of traditional worldview – anthropocentrism, anthropometry and nthropomorphism, i.e. the reciprocal influence between the macrocosm and microcosm.
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Several archaic features of interpreting the surrounding world are still present in Udmurt folk culture. Calendar-related customs and feasts still preserve the oldest elements at all levels of rituals: in activities, artefacts, verbal and acoustic fields, etc. The dismissal of pests and caterpillars, and their wedding rituals, are deeply rooted in calendar customs. The thorough study of the codes of these rituals would help to determine the semantics of rituals, ascertaining the synchronic-diachronic aspects of the calendar, and provide an integral imagination with regard to the mythopoetic foundations of popular worldview. Relying on the analysis of the specificity of Udmurt calendar feasts and customs, it becomes obvious that the tradition of warding off vermin takes place in different seasons and is an inseparable part of the calendar cycle. Having analysed the specificity of Udmurt calendar feasts and customs, the rituals associated with the dismissal of insects is intrinsically polyfunctional, whereas the most archaic feature therein is the idea of conjuring the rain.
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