The Medieval Frescoes from Unirea/Felvinc

A felvinci református templom újonnan feltárt középkori freskója

Author(s): Tekla Szabó / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: II/2007

Keywords: fresco; medieval church

On the medieval walls built in the 19th century church of Unirea (Felvinc) a significant Passion-cycle has been found. The frescoes found on the eastern and the southern walls of the sanctuary - in the area of the gallery supporting the organ - have been conserved between 2002 and 2007. The work will continue in the area beneath the gallery. The upper row of the south wall includes two fragmentary scenes before the Crucifixion: the Flagellation and the Trial of Christ. The Passion-cycle continues in the apex of the eastern wall with a large Crucifixion scene. The 19th century vault of the chancel covers the upper part of the scene. The two scenes of the second row - on either side of a window with the iconic representation of Kosmas and Damian - are the Deposition and the Entombment of Christ. The Resurrection and Anastasis of Christ are represented in the lower row, partly covered by the gallery. The scenes of the post-Resurrection incidents continue on the south wall with the Assumption. An apostle head depiction has been found under the Trial of Christ scene. The masterfully composed fresco full with emotions resembles the sparse compositions of the Middle Byzantine era, which lived throughout and influenced the art of the duecento. This is the heritage of the painters who fled Constantinople after 1204, and who found their new maecenas in the young Balkan and Crusade states, or further in Western Europe. It is interesting to note that at Unirea many depictions merge two scenes of the Holy History. The Deposition of Christ scene supports elements from the Lamentation of Christ, while the Anastasis Christ's victory pose refers more to the Resurrection. A Christ in victory is also represented a Resurrection. The scene blended this Western component with the Byzantine style: an angel points towards the empty grave and supposedly towards the three women, but that scene probably was covered by the 19 century structure. Other scenes prove the circulation of Franciscan patterns widespread in Italian painting from the middle of 13th century. The new images enhancing the sufferings like The Flagellum, the Trial shows the transformation process of the Byzantine imagery for Western use. We also find direct allusions to friars in the representation of the cord-bounded hands of Christ in the scene of the Trial, or the cord legged clothes of the holy personages in the Anastasis scene. The technique used is secco-fresco with sepia. The giornates follows the frame of the scenes. Considering the wall paintings, one can recognize the characteristics of the "Italo-Byzantine style". The figures with red haloes tend to fill out the red frames of the scenes. In the space between them, western architectural patterns were inserted. The "horror vacui" is proved by the preference for the numerous decorative patterns, mostly painted al secco. The almost sculptural forms of the figures are painted with different saturations of the same colours, creating a chiaroscuro effect. On the frescoes left, one can identify three masters. One of them, who painted mainly the women side figures and the medical saints, had also the characteristics of the "Linear Gothic Style". The interference of the two styles can be observed also at Cecejovce, Cserkút and Sânta Măria Orlea. Both styles have Byzantine features, but it appears that one should not necessarily search for a direct influence of either style. The discovery of the Unirea frescoes helped to reconsider the importance of the Italo-Byzantine style at the beginning of 14th century. Together with other new discoveries (Văleni de Mureş, Crăciunel) and the reanalysis of the ones which were already known (Sântimru, Cricău, Cecejovce, Cserkút,) the circle of the Italo-Byzantine wall paintings (mostly Sânta Măria Orlea, Spisská Kapitula, Dravce, Ghelniţa) became wider. One can find common features in almost all works of the style circle, but the Unirea fresco is closest to the fresco of Sântimbru, Criău and Sânta Măria Orlea. This is due to the relatively common painting technique and the common source of the iconography. The diversity and the high quality of both styles and composition are raising the question of a possible local mixing of styles.

The Erstwhile Church of the Fortress of Satu Mare/Szatmár

Szatmár egykori vártemploma

Author(s): Klára P. Kovács / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: II/2007

Keywords: fortress; Satu Mare; Transylvanian Principality; Gabriel Bethlen; George Rákóczi I; George Rákóczi II; church; Jakab Révkomáromi Asztalos;

During the 16th and 17th centuries the possession of the fortress of Satu Mare (Szatmár), situated on the border between Transylvanian Principality and the Hungarian Kingdom, alternated fairly often between die two slates. Under the rule of the Protestant princes of the 17th century - Gabriel Bethlen, George Rákóczi I and George Rákóczi II - these changes always generated confessional conflicts about the possession of the church in the fortress. In 1665 the complaint of the Protestants about the illegal occupation of the church reached the government. The latter ordered witness hearings in this matter. After sketching the history of the church between 1569 and 1703, the author analyses the testimonies from 1665. Besides the ecclesiastical reference of the text, she also emphasizes the importance of the document from the point of view of an art historian: one can find interesting data about the craftsmen and different phases of the building of the church in 1648. Among the craftsmen mentioned by the testifiers the most important seems to be Jakab Révkomáromi Asztalos, who made the wooden ceiling and the pulpit of the church for a considerable sum of money. The author then publishes the text of the testimonies.

Tinworks in the Historical Orbai Reformed Diocese

Ónedények a történelmi Orbai Református Egyházmegyében

Author(s): Mária Márta Kovács / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: II/2007

Keywords: historical tinworks; tin founders; ecclesiestical inventories; Orbai diocese

In Transylvania an important and valorous role had the art of the tin founders. As an expression of a flourishing, artistic trade one can find numerous tinworks in ecclesiastical inventories. The present study gives us a general view of tinworks of the Orbai diocese: forms, techniques of tin founding and ornaments, marks, stylistic evolution. At the beginning, tinworks were seen as luxury objects and only later were accepted for general use. In the Orbai congregations remained different tinworks: tankards, dishes, falcons. The cans are classified in more categories: conic, truncated cone, cylindrical and cylindriform. Plates and dishes had festooneries, thin margins and the falcons were polygonal. Specific for the Transylvanian craftsmen are the engraved flowers and geometric motives. The ornaments of the handles are characterized by fine details, equality of composition and predilection for floral motives. On the piece, the place of the stamps differed from one town to another. For example the workshop from Braşov put their can marks inside the tankard and those from Sighişoara and Sibiu put them on the handle shoulder.

The Textiles of Baroness Kata Wesselényi Donated to Calvinist Churches

Báró Wesselényi Kata református gyülekezeteknek adományozott textíliáiról

Author(s): Iringó Horváth / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: II/2007

Keywords: textiles; Baroness Kata Wesselényi; decorative arts; Reformed Church of Transylvania; liturgy

The textiles of different ecclesiastical collections during the last century had a hard destiny. Though they are important examples of the decorative arts from the 16th and 18th centuries they were kept in poor conditions and represented no interests in art historical studies or researches in Transylvania. During the year 2005 I had the opportunity to examine in details some textiles donated to the Calvinist congregation of Sáromberke (Dumbrăvioara) by Baroness Kata Wesselényi. They were used during the liturgy in order to cover the communion table and the other objects. Most of them were designed and prepared in a masterly manner and even now the remained pieces - 11 in total - are in good conditions. This raised my interest for a deeper research, which is presented in this study. During my investigations - studying a narrowly existing bibliography - I found 29 embroideries donated by the same person to the Calvinist congregations of Erdőszentgyörgy (Sângeorgiu de Pădure), Hagymásbodon (Budiu Mic), Kibéd (Chibed), Marosvásárhely (Târgu-Mureş), Uzdiszentpéter (Sânpetru de Câmpie). These textiles were mostly made of linen and cotton, only in one case was used silk. For embroidered parts they used white, coloured silk and metallic threads. The majority of motifs indicate the second part of the 18th century but sometimes they remind us of older - renaissance - patterns. The floral ornaments are dominant - pomegranates, tulips, roses, etc. - but one can meet also figurative elements like the mermaid and the swan. These last two are representations of the coat-of-arms of the Wesselényi and Rhédei families. The most frequently used structures of patterns are the accentuated motifs in the corners or grouped in a band on the margins. The identification of these textiles represented an easy task because all of them have at least one inscription with the name of the donator and the years of her donating acts (between 1755 and 1776).

Hoffmayer Simon's Altar from Torda

Hoffmayer Simon tordai oltára

Author(s): Attila Weisz / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: II/2007

Keywords: church altar; Turda, Simon Hoffmayer; church furniture

The paper deals with the 18-19th century furnishings of the Roman Catholic church in Torda/Turda. The Baroque side-altars originally were dedicated to St. Francis of Assisi and St. Clare of Assisi, the central image from 1827 of the southern side-altar there is at the parsonage, the one of the northern side-altar is missing. St. Rose of Palermo, St. Sebastian and St. Roch whose figures appear on the northern side-altar, were respected as protectors against plague, as well as Francis Xavier whose figure can be seen on the southern side-altar. On the southern side-altar there can be seen a supposedly earlier medallion picture which depicts the Mocking of Christ. On the evidence of the documents belonging to the archive of the parsonage it is probable the two side-altars were brought in 1788 from Kolozsvár/Cluj, from a Franciscan Third Order nunnery which was put a stop to by a decree of Joseph the II's in 1787. The monumental high altar of the church by mistake was considered a work of a workshop from Pest until now. From the entries of the parsonage's archive it came to light that the altar was made between 1794-1800 by Simon Hoffmayer, the most important sculptor of Transylvania on that time, to the order of Ignác Batthyány, bishop of Transylvania. The central statues' composition of the altar with baldachin represents the Crucifixion with Mary, Mary Magdalena and John, with the Father above. Numerous analogies of the statue's movements, details can be seen at the other works of Hoffmayer. The actual architectural shape of the church's interior had been ready by 1822, the painted decoration occurred after that, by the mostly unknown painter, János Vitkai from Marosvásárhely/Tirgu Mures. Vitkai made the gilding of the high altar (originally the figures were painted and Vitkai's colour sketch of gilding survived), the gilding of the side-altars and the gilding of the pulpit (the pulpit itself was probably made by Csűrös Antal, a follower of Hoffmayer.). The marble imitating wall-paintings and the inscriptions, too, are the works of Vitkai, as well as the two wall paintings of the choir's vaulting which depict the birth of Mary and the Ascension of Mary (the third segment of the vaulting collapsed in 1944, the painting that can be seen there is recent).

THE VIEWS OF MK, KPP AND MCH CONCERNING THE PARTY SYSTEM IN THE CAPITALIST AND SOCIALIST REGIMES

POGLĄDY MIĘDZYNARODÓWKI KOMUNISTYCZNEJ, KOMUNISTYCZNEJ PARTII POLSKI I MIĘDZYNARODÓWKI CHŁOPSKIEJ NA SYSTEM PARTYJNY W USTROJU KAPITALISTYCZNYM I SOCJALISTYCZNYM

Author(s): HENRYK CIMEK / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: communism; socialist regime; ideology

According to the communists, in an intermediate period following the victory of the socialist revolution, during a transition from capitalism to communism, a state of the proletariat dictatorship would exist. They assumed that in the socialist regime, a oneparty system would function. As far as the capitalist regime, the communists fought against the parties of the right, the reformist and agrarian parties – except for periods when they voiced the slogan of a two-stage revolution (1923, 1935–1937). In those periods they proposed that a worker-peasant government should be established, including inter alia PPS and PSL Wyzwolenie. The communists ran also into a difficulty when determining their attitude toward legally operating revolutionary organizations. In practice, they accepted their existence, stressing, however, that those would continue to operate only as long as the socialist revolution had won.

THE PROBLEM OF MIGRATION IN RELATIONS BETWEEN TURKEY AND THE EUROPEAN UNION

PROBLEM MIGRACJI W STOSUNKACH MIĘDZY TURCJĄ A UNIĄ EUROPEJSKĄ

Author(s): Anna Gąsior-Niemiec / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: migration; migration system; Turkey; the European Union; accession; negotiations

The paper is focused on migration as one of the major issues that determine relations, including accession negotiations, between the European Union and Turkey. In spite of the dominant anti-Turkish discourse across the EU, the Author points out several historical and current phenomena that have resulted in building a complex migration system between the two geographical areas. The migration flows within the migration system are shown to have occurred in both directions. Both advantages and disadvantages of the flows are selectively discussed. Finally, based on demographic forecasts, economic prognoses and current migration statistics in Europe, the paper hypothesizes that in the future the much feared inflows of the Turks to the EU might be balanced, if not surpassed, by outflows of both the former Turkish immigrants and “native” Europeans from Europe to Turkey.

THE AIMS AND PRIORITIES OF THE POLISH SOCIAL POLICY IN THE YEARS 1918–1939

ZAŁOŻENIA I PRIORYTETY POLSKIEJ POLITYKI SPOŁECZNEJ W LATACH 1918–1939

Author(s): Paweł Grata / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: social policy; social issue; employment policy; social security; welfare

The process of creating the basic assumptions of the social policy of the Second Republic was extremely complicated and a coherent vision of the state's involvement in solving social issues was developed only in the thirties. At that time there was a clear definition of the Polish social policy framework. The final design included the issue of employment, social security, welfare, immigration and health care. An important factor in the development of social policy objectives was their dependence on economic conditions and the related development of methods for solving the ever changing social issues. With time, the modernization efforts were more and more important, due to them the Polish social policy was supposed to become more modern and focused on the removal of not only the effects but also the causes of the problems in society.

THE NON-LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURE IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

PROCEDURA NIEPRAWODAWCZA W UNII EUROPEJSKIEJ

Author(s): Grzegorz Janusz / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: European Union; decision-making procedures; legislative procedures; non-legislative procedures; procedure for revising treaties

The entry into force of The Treaty of Lisbon on 1 December 2009 substantially changed the terminology used in legislative (decision-making) procedures in the EU. The basic change was the introduction of the division of acts of EU secondary law into legislative and non-legislative ones. At the same time legislative procedures were further specified and described in two forms as the ordinary legislative procedure and special legislative procedure. Apart from the two legislative procedures, EU decision-making procedures should also be taken into account, which, while producing specific political and legal consequences, did not aim at the adoption of a legislative act. They are determined by both the provisions of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. This type of decision-making procedure should be described as a non-legislative procedure. Decision-making mechanisms also take into account the hybrid nature of the EU and a variety of interests of the Member States with the simultaneous need for maintaining the cohesion of the European Union.

PRINCIPLES FOR THE REMUNERATION OF TEACHERS AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION BY LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN THE PODKARPACKIE’S VOIVODSHIP IN 2009–2011

ZASADY WYNAGRADZANIA NAUCZYCIELI I ICH REALIZACJA PRZEZ SAMORZĄDY TERYTORIALNE WOJEWÓDZTWA PODKARPACKIEGO W LATACH 2009–2011

Author(s): Bogusław Kotarba / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: local government; Podkarpackie’s Voivodship; educational policy; rules of remuneration

Decentralisation of power in Poland after 1990 also included the sphere of education, as a result of which local governments became an important subject of educational policy. In order to implement their tasks they implement a variety of instruments. One of them is the possibility to influence the level of the teachers’ salaries. Authorities who run schools are obliged to establish, through appropriate regulations, such remuneration policy that will allow for the achievement of average salaries, set at the central level, for particular groups of teachers’ promotions. Otherwise, they are required to pay compensatory allowances to teachers. In this article an analysis of compliance with this requirement in the Podkarpackie’s Voivodship has been made, based on the financial statements of the local governments. The research has shown that a substantial number of governments guarantee the required average pay levels not by accepted rules of remuneration arrangements, but by paying supplementary allowances.

A VISION OF THE STATE’S REGIME IN THE POLITICAL THOUGHT OF ZADRUGA SURROUNDINGS

WIZJA USTROJU PAŃSTWA W MYŚLI POLITYCZNEJ ŚRODOWISKA ZADRUGI

Author(s): BARTOSZ KOWAL / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: Polish nationalists; state regime; Zadruga

Zadruga was the movement of Polish nationalists in years 1918–1939. Abandonmentof christion religion was its characteristic feature. Jan Stachniuk – an economist –was the founder of the movement. After the Second World, War Jan Stachniuk tried toreactivate Zadruga. He failed and was arrested. In the period of People’s Republic ofPoland the heritage of Zadruga was forgotten. After 1989 the intellectual traditionof Zadruga attracted new people. In the article, Zadruga’s concept of political system isdiscussed, both in reference to its totalitarian version present before the Second World War, as well as more liberalized after 1989

THE ROLE OF THE WOMAN IN IDEOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS OF LIGA POLSKICH RODZIN

ROLA KOBIETY W KONCEPCJACH IDEOWYCH LIGI POLSKICH RODZIN

Author(s): Tomasz Koziełło / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: political thought; Polish national movement; modern history; Poland

According to the attitude of Liga Polskich Rodzin (LPR) women should accomplish their life mission as members of families – wives and mothers, as they are characterized by sensitivity, care, protectiveness and cordiality towards other people. The leaders of LPR thought, that unwillingness of women to execute family duties could weaken a family and make its proper functioning impossible. Weak family would diminish condition of the nation, which was one of the most important values for LPR, so the party demanded accomplishment of family duties from women. On the other hand, LPR didn’t object professional career and activity in public life by women, but wanted that they follow their vocation. The best solution for LPR was combining two roles by women: wife and mother in private life, and successful employee in professional one.

PRO SOCIETAS. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL THOUGHT OF JAN HOPPE

PRO SOCIETAS. MYŚL SPOŁECZNO-POLITYCZNA JANA HOPPEGO

Author(s): Rafał Łętocha / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: Jan Hoppe; Jutro Pracy; Sanation; solidarity ;political thought

The objective of the present article is to reconstruct and interpret Jan Hoppe political and social concepts. Jan Hoppe was one of the most important activist and social thinkers of the Second Polish Republic, closely with leading sanation ideologue Adam Skwarczyński. In 1930 he founded a magazine called “Jutro Pracy” (“Tomorrow of Work”). Soon, a political group founded by the same name, which was part of the Sanation Camp. During the Second World War, was a co-founder of the underground organization Unia (The Union) grouping Poland’s leading intellectuals. Above all, he was the creator of interesting social and political concepts, emphasized the need for national solidarity, called for improving the position of the workers and to the reconciliation and cooperation between the National Camp and Sanation.

THE IDEA OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE IN THE 1893–1939 POLITICAL STRATEGY OF NARODOWA DEMOKRACJA

NIEPOSŁUSZEŃSTWO OBYWATELSKIE W STRATEGII POLITYCZNEJ NARODOWEJ DEMOKRACJI 1893–1939

Author(s): Ewa Maj / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: civil disobedience; passive resistance; economic boycott; political; boycott; nonviolent resistance

Narodowa Demokracja proclaimed its programme to resign from violence as a military activity and manifested its reluctance to insurrectionary techniques of political fighting. It postponed the decision to begin a national uprising, which was supported by a number of factors. Narodowa Demokracja were willing to benefit from the impact made by social authority figures like the Church, the school, and the press. The rules they set out condemned any political loyalty to the occupants. They encouraged passive resistance against Russification or Germanisation and engagement in legal political activities. Narodowa Demokracja focused on how to organise effectively education and upbringing with the use of available means to educate the Polish nation. The experience of the partitions was disregarded when Sanacja, a Polish coalition political movement, was in power. As a result, a wide range of nonviolent resistance methods was adopted, including political and economic boycott.

THE PEASANT POLITICIANS’ STANCE REGARDING TERRITORIAL SELF-GOVERNMENT AT SEJM USTAWODAWCZY (1919–1922)

STANOWISKO LUDOWCÓW W KWESTII SAMORZĄDU TERYTORIALNEGO W SEJMIE USTAWODAWCZYM (1919–1922)

Author(s): AGNIESZKA STRYKOWSKA / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: political peasant movement; self-government; local community

Self-government is the most democratic representation of local communities. Since the establishment of the peasant’s political movement, its political motto was: who rules in the community, rules the country. The most extensive and detailed concepts of the structure of local government were provided by the Polish Peasant’s Party in the first years of the existence of the Second Polish Republic.

A VISION OF THE STATE IN UNIA WOLNOŚCI’S POLITICAL THOUGHT

WIZJA PAŃSTWA W MYŚLI POLITYCZNEJ UNII WOLNOŚCI

Author(s): Dominik Szczepański / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: political party;Union Freedom;constitution;democracy

The aim of the article was to present the UW party’s assumptions of the politicalsystem of the country. A particular attention was paid to the principle of separation ofpowers and the need to maintain a balance between the legislative, administrative andjudicatory power. The scope of the various authorities have been discussed, and specificsolutions pointed at which, according to UW ideologues, may have contributed to theirbetter functioning.

POLAND IN THE EU COMMON SECURITY AND DEFENCE POLICY

POLSKA WE WSPÓLNEJ POLITYCE BEZPIECZEŃSTWA I OBRONY UNII EUROPEJSKIEJ

Author(s): Ryszard Zięba / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: Poland; the European Union; European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP); Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP); crisis management; battle; groups

Poland’s reaction to the proclamation in 1999 by the European Union – the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP), was restrained, and even critical. However, after the accession to the community, the authorities of Poland have started engaging in shaping and carrying out this policy. Poland is participating in building assets and capabilities of ESDP: in the process of European rapid reaction forces generation, in creation of “battle groups”, in work of the European Defence Agency, and in building of ESDP civilian capabilities. It is engaging in the EU crisis management operations,military and civilian missions. During last years Poland is showing high activity in favour to strengthening the Common Security and Defence Policy (new name of ESDP after Lisbon Treaty); it gave the evidence of that at the time of the Presidency of the EU Council in the second half of 2011. In matters of strengthening the CSDP Poland cooperates closely with Germany and France within the framework of the Weimar Triangle.

THE ROMA AND THE HUNGARIAN MINORITIES IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC’S GOVERNMENT’S POLICY (1993–1998)

MNIEJSZOŚĆ ROMSKA I WĘGIERSKA W POLITYCE RZĄDU REPUBLIKI SŁOWACKIEJ (1993–1998)

Author(s): Krzysztof Żarna / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

Keywords: national and ethnic minorities; Hungary; Slovak Republic; ethnic policy

Slovak Republic is the state, where in comparison with Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary, considerable percentage of inhabitants present representatives of national and ethnic minorities. The basic documents for normalization the situation of minorities in Slovakia are Constitution and State language Act. Slovak Republic is also obliged by bilateral agreements and obligations from membership in international bodies with global and regional coverage: The United Nations, The Council of Europe, The Visegrád Group and The Central European Initiative. The ethnic policy of V. Mečiar government with reference to Roms and Hungarians has caused isolation of Slovakia on international scene. Slovakia has fallen out from first group states aspirating to UE and NATO. In analyzed period Slovakia had to give up participation in Visegrád Group and faced many tensions with Hungary.

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ACEK SROKA: DELIBERACJA I RZĄDZENIE WIELOPASMOWE. TEORIA I PRAKTYKA WYDAWNICTWO UNIWERSYTETU WROCŁAWSKIEGO, WROCŁAW 2009

Author(s): Wojciech Furman / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012

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LESZEK F. KORZENIOWSKI: PODSTAWY ZARZĄDZANIA ORGANIZACJAMI

Author(s): Mariola Grzebyk / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 10/2012