Očuvanje hrvatskog jezika u Kanadi
Croatian Language Maintenance in Canada

Summary/Abstract: Although the topic of language maintenance has received considerable attention from linguists around the world, there are still many aspects of this language-contact phenomenon that could be examined further. This paper aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by exploring the state of Croatian as a heritage language in Canada. The aim of the paper is two-fold. The first is to describe the demographic characteristics of the Croatian community by investigating the number of people of Croatian descent and the number of Croatian speakers in Canada. The second, and more specific, aim of the paper is to provide an account of the state of Croatian as a minority language and examine the extent of language maintenance in the community. To accomplish the first objective, Canadian census data (1996, 2001, 2006, and 2011) was analyzed, with special focus on linguistic census data (number and age of Croatian speakers in Canada, mother tongue of people of Croatian descent, language most used at home, etc.). To accomplish the second objective, census data was supplemented with data from a questionnaire-based survey completed by members of the Croatian community in Toronto. The survey was completed by 220 participants; 110 first-generation Croatian Canadians and 110 second-generation Croatian Canadians. Two versions of the questionnaire were designed, one for first-generation participants and the other for second-generation participants. The great majority of items in the two versions were identical; each version contained questions about demographic characteristics, language use in everyday life, and self-perceived language proficiency in English and Croatian. The majority of questions were of a closed type (multiple-choice questions and rating scales), but there were also some open-ended questions, so as to give participants the opportunity to express their viewpoint or comment on certain issues. Questions were written in both Croatian and English, and participants were instructed that they could use whichever language they felt most comfortable with. Most first-generation participants responded in Croatian, and most second-generation participants responded in English. The average age of first-generation participants was 58.6 (SD = 12.14) and the average age of second-generation participants was 33.1 (SD = 10.06). There were more females in both groups, 58.2% in the first-generation group and 54.5% in the second generation group. As far as the differences in education level between the two groups are cocerned, second-generation participants were mostly better educated than first-generation participants. There are numerous social, demographic and economic factors that could contribute to minority language maintenance or that could bring about a shift to the majority language; moreover, many models have been proposed in order to account for differences in language maintenance between various ethnic groups (cf. Clyne, 2003). For instance, Giles, Bourhis and Taylor (1977) introduced the theoretical construct of ethnolinguistic vitality. Ethnolinguistic vitality is defined as “that which makes a group likely to behave as a distinctive and active collective entity in intergroup settings” (Giles, Bourhis and Taylor, 1977: 308). They argue that groups with high ethnolinguistic vitality are more likely to survive as recognizable and unified entities, and maintain their language. On the other hand, in groups with low ethnolinguistic vitality it is more likely that language shift will occur. According to Giles, Bourhis and Taylor (1977), there are three main types of variables that influence the vitality of a group: status variables, demographic variables, and institutional support variables. This paper focuses on demographic factors, especially on census language data and historical comparisons, which could give an indication of ethnolinguistic vitality and language stability of the Croatian community in Canada. Demographic factors to be examined concern the absolute number of community members, their geographical distribution, the number of Croatian language speakers, and the number of those with Croatian as their mother tongue. According to the 2011 census, there were 114 880 Canadians of Croatian origin, representing an increase of 3.5% over 2006. In 2006, 110 880 Canadian residents reported Croatian ancestry, representing a percentage change of 12.5% from 2001. In 2001, there were 97 050 Canadians who self-identified as being of Croatian origin, representing a percentage change of 13% from 1996, when there were 84 495 Canadians of Croatian origin. Furthermore, census data show that the percentage of Canadians of Croatian origin reporting multiple ethnicity increased over the period; in 1996, there were 65.5% single ethnic origin responses, compared to 60% in 2001, 50.9% in 2006, and only 45.1% in 2011. In terms of geographical distribution of members of Croatian community in Canada, almost two thirds of all Canadians of Croatian descent (74 020) live in the province Ontario, with significant numbers also in British Columbia (19 855) and Alberta (10 055). The largest Croatian community is in the Toronto area, where 35 115 Croatians live, with significant numbers also in Vancouver (13 025) and Hamilton (11 640). The census data presented here indicate that demographic factors that positively influence Croatian language maintenance are the size of the linguistic group and geographic concentration of the group. More precisely, the absolute number of people of Croatian descent living in Canada is on the rise and the population of Croatian origin is mostly concentrated in the province of Ontario and in major urban centers in other provinces. On the other hand, the rise in the percentage of Canadians of Croatian descent reporting more than one ancestry could be viewed as a factor that negatively affects Croatian language maintenance. It is provided by the evidence of gradually changing marriage patterns, from endogamous to exogamous unions, in which language shift is more likely to occur. Another important demographic factor concerns the number of speakers of Croatian. According to the 2011 census, 55.2% of Canadians of Croatian origin reported that they could speak Croatian. This compares with 65.6% in the 2006 census, 73.9% in the 2001 census, and 75.6% in the 1996 census. Between 1996 and 2011, the percentage of people of Croatian descent who reported that they could speak Croatian declined by 20.4 percentage points. Additionally, in 2011, 49 735 Canadian residents reported Croatian as their mother tongue, compared with 50 105 in 1996. Although the absolute number of those who reported Croatian as their mother tongue did not change significantly between 1996 and 2011, the proportion of those with Croatian as their mother tongue in the overall population of Croatian descent declined by 16 percentage points. For sustainable language maintenance it is crucial that the minority language, in this case Croatian, is used at home, making it more likely to be passed on to the next generation. In 2011, 16.3% Canadians of Croatian origin reported Croatian as the language spoken most often at home. This number was 3.6 percentage points lower than what was reported in 2006. The census language data presented above show that factors that negatively influence Croatian language maintenance are the decline in the percentage of people of Croatian descent who could speak the language, the decline in the proportion of those with Croatian as their mother tongue in the overall population of Croatian descent, as well as the decline in the percentage of those who report Croatian as the language spoken most often at home. To get a more detailed insight into the language use in the community and the predominant communication patterns, census data was supplemented with data from a questionnaire-based survey. Results of the questionnaire analysis show that first-generation participants mostly use Croatian in everyday communication (62% of the time), whereas second-generation participants mostly use English (77.9% of the time). In terms of language use in the family domain, most first-generation participants use Croatian with their children and grandchildren, but an increase in the use of English is evident in communication between grandparents and grandchildren. When it comes to second-generation participants, they mostly use English in communication with their siblings and Croatian when communicating with their parents. Overall, the results show that Croatian is relatively well maintained in the community mostly thanks to the efforts of first-generation Croatians who have managed to transfer the language to the next generation. The role of the individual in insisting on minority language use at home was key, along with the participation of the greater Croatian community through well-organized educational and cultural programs. However, many challenges exist to maintaining stability, in particular due to the reduction in the number of new immigrants of Croatian origin, who can prolong the use of Croatian in the community and secure its transfer to the next generation.

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