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Svako razmišljanje o književnom koje želi da shvati prirodu književnosti kao jezičke umetnosti, mora da počne od teksta i rečenice kao osnovnih oblika u kojima se ostvaruje estetska intencija i smisao književnog stvaralaštva. Ako je u ovakvim razmatranjima na prvom mestu pre bila rečenica - a radilo se to sa pozicija lingvistički orijentisanog mišljenja o književnosti - ovde želimo dati argumentaciju za suprotno stanovište, pa i sa polemičkim osvrtom na situaciju u samoj lingvistici.
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The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of semantic typology as a separate discipline with an interdisciplinary background. Semantic typology is presented as a novel emerging field in linguistic typology that combines semantic theory with typological methodology for a systematic cross–linguistic investigation of meaning. We present and discuss theoretical and methodological precursors to the development of semantic typology as an independent field at the crossroads of several traditions – typological, semantic and anthropological. We discuss the influence that kinship studies, color research, morphosyntactic typology and structuralist semantic traditions had on the development of semantic typology, as well as the limitations current methodological approaches based on these studies may encounter. We point out two main ways in which the term semantic typology is used in extant literature: a) synonymous with lexical typology and b) synonymous with semantically based typological classification of grammatical categories. Furthermore, we point out two main approaches to defining lexical typology. One is concerned with the demarcation of categories in various languages, while the other focuses only on those lexical features which are grammatically relevant. Finally, we argue for a broad conception of semantic typology that unifies the two uses of the term. Semantic typology under this view has the following goals: a) to make generalizations and classifications about “semantic types”, especially with regard to grammatical categories, b) to seek out potential universal semantic features and the way that they are coded in the languages of the world, c) to investigate potential universal semantic relations (e.g. polysemy, synonymy) and the way they operate upon language structures synchronically and diachronically, d) to investigate regularities in the formation of lexical and grammatical structures and e) to investigate the lexicon–grammar continuum and the way meanings are distributed across this continuum, with special attention to regularities across languages.
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The paper aims to explain the interconnections between text and discourse. It presents some views on discourse and text, and concludes that discourse has the superior and multicodal character in relation to text. An assumption is made that text has a dual nature; it is a product of language, and part of communication. Moreover, the author makes an attempt to describe the role of context as a kind of mechanism which links the level of text with the area of discourse, thus rendering the text comprehensible. In addition, the paper emphasizes the cognitive processes involved in the comprehension of text through context.
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The paper describes the workings of a website which main purpose is to serve as a didactic aid in the teaching of the grammar of Polish numerals. The user inputs a natural number into the application (as a string of digits), and selects the categories of gender and case; the output is the declined number as a word, together with the syntactic requirements of the numeral group which corresponds to the given number. The paper presents the theoretical basis of the algorithm of this application, and some problems and doubts which arose during its implementation.
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The goal of the paper is to remind the reader about paradigmatic derivation, clipping and derivation by exchange of prefixes, three recently recognized and defined techniques of word-formation. The author points out that, thanks to more than a dozen detailed studies and three important monographs, the description of the Polish system of word-formation gained in simplicity and distinctness, thus also benefitting academic didactics. Introducing the distinction between paradigmatic derivation and clipping proved particularly advantageous. The fate of derivation by exchange of affixes, which we are now forced to reduce to derivation by exchange of prefixes, proved to be both interesting and surprising. The paper emphasizes the input of Professor Bogusław Kreja as a contributor or inspirer of every one of the research areas mentioned above. We can only regret that he never voiced his opinion about the so-called derivation by alternation, a problem which still requires a deeper analysis.
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The paper presents the construction (jakoś) mówiąc ‘speaking (in some manner)’, against the background of metatextual expressions which serve the sender to comment on the utterance as it is created. The kind of this commentary depends on the filling of the valency slot opened by the quasi- -adverbial, i.e. on the meaning of the adverbial expression represented by the forms of adverbs (e.g. krótko ‘briefly’, inaczej ‘differently’, delikatniej ‘more subtly’, ściślej ‘more precisely’, wprost ‘bluntly’, ogólnie ‘generally’, szczerze ‘honestly’, poważnie ‘gravely’), adverbial expressions (e.g. z grubsza ‘roughly’, w skrócie ‘in short’, w cudzysłowie ‘in quotes’), the po _-u construction (e.g. po polsku ‘in Polish’, po ludzku ‘humanely’, po prostacku ‘in a boorish way’, po ludowemu ‘the folk way’, po sportowemu ‘the sport way’), and quasi-instrumentals (językiem _ ‘in the _ language’, słowami _ ‘with _ words’, żargonem _ ‘in the _ jargon’). The author shows how adverbials struggle to become independent from mówiąc, and presents their semantic classification based on two clearly separated groups: adverbials which project an evaluation of the communication (e.g. szczerze ‘honestly’, skromnie ‘humbly’, serio ‘seriously’, żartobliwie ‘facetiously’), and adverbials which name operations performed on the communication, i.e. modify its content (e.g. krótko ‘briefly’, ogólnie ‘generally’, precyzyjniej ‘more precisely’) or select a system of symbols (e.g. symbolicznie ‘symbolically’, po ludzku ‘humanely’, brutalnie ‘brutally’, fachowo ‘professionally’, po heglowsku ‘in a Hegelian manner’).
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The paper analyses the semantic-syntactic description of expressions of the ten i ten, tak a tak (‘such and such’, ‘so and so’) type. These are not units of language but rather constructions which result from the filling of slots meant for anaphoric pronouns in such arrangements as _i i _i and _i a _i. In contrast to the _i i _j arrangement, the discussed idiomatic constructions express a reference to single elements, and hence are not tautological. The paper formulates the following hypotheses: a) expressions of this kind are used in sentences which refer to a different act of speech (potential or real) but instead of designating an element in the current utterance, they recount a reference made in the adduced utterance; b) the analysed constructions act as “position markers” in a sentence, but despite that, they cannot be interpreted as logical variables because they preserve the characteristics of linguistic expressions.
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The paper analyses the textual functions of the colon in 1637–1855 editions of Łukasz Górnicki’s Dzieje w Koronie Polskiej. The colon, as an element of rhetoric-intonational punctuation, served to organize and to adequately manage the textual matter. In 19th c. editions of Dzieje…, we observe a snuffing out of textual functions of the colon, in connection with the transition to the syntactic-logical punctuation.
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The paper presents the various names given in Polish legal terminology to children born outside of marriage, from the oldest times to the interwar period. The process of stabilization of indices of this concept was a relatively long one. In mediaeval legal texts, we find multiple variants, most of which mirror Latin terms, e.g. nieprawego łoża ‘of unlawful bed’, nieczystego łoża ‘of impure bed’, niecnie narodzony ‘dishonourably born’, niedobrze urodzon ‘ill-born’, and also the neologism wyleganiec. Synonymous terms survive into the Middle Polish stage (16th – mid-18th c.), the most frequent ones being złego łoża ‘of bad bed’, niedobrego łoża ‘of wrong bed’, niepoczciwego łoża dzieci ‘children of indecent bed’. In the 19th century, two terms compete: dzieci nieprawego łoża ‘children of unlawful bed’ and, introduced in the translation of the Napoleonic Code, dzieci naturalne ‘natural children’; by the end of the 19th century, dzieci nieślubne ‘unmarried children’ become more widespread. A characteristic feature of the analysed terms is the presence of an evaluating element, which mirrorrs the contemporary legal status in which extramarital children were treated as a worse category and discriminated against. Finally, the paper draws attention to the differences between the civil and the canonic law, with regard to their choice of terms for ‘love children’.
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This two-part paper presents the theoretical assumptions, and gives an account of the current progress of a Slavistic appendix which is being prepared by the present author for an as yet unwritten Dictionary of Polish topolexemes, an attempt to inventory and describe the entire lexical deposit of potentially Proto-Slavic origin contained in Polish place and terrain names. The aim of this research is to determine, based on the varying degree of its preservation in the toponymy of different regions, the place where Proto-Slavic vocabulary was formed. The first part presents the history of research together with a criticism of previous attempts, and explains the main methodological rules, focusing on the reconstruction of words which are not attested in Polish as appellatives. It also discusses the state of the source base, and problems which arise during work with various types of Polish toponomastic sources.
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The traditional Oriental etymology of Polish karawana ‘caravan’ seems to be self-evident and somewhat trivial. This author aims to show that the transmission channels from the Orient into both Slavonic and Western European languages are far more complex than previously thought.
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The author considers anew the origin of the Slavic suffix *-tajь, taking into account new Tochariandata which feature the agentive suffix -tau (e.g. Toch. B. olyitau ‘boatman’ : Toch. AB olyi; Toch. Bkäryorttau ‘trader, merchant’ : karyor ‘buying, business negotiation’), as well as the iterative-frequentativefeature of the verbal suffix *-teh₂- in the Indo-European languages. The iterative-frequentativeaspect of the Indo-European suffix *-teh₂- is securely preserved in the Latin verbal system, cf. Lat. eō,īre ‘to go, walk, move, pass’, Gk. εἶμι ‘id.’ (< PIE. *h₁ei- ‘to go’) vs. Lat. itō, itāre (verbum iterativum velintensivum) ‘to go, march’, Gk. ἰτητέον (adiectivum verbale) (< PIE. *h₁i-teh₂- ‘to go frequently’). Itis suggested that the iterative-frequentative (and perhaps intensive) meaning of the suffix *-teh₂- wasadopted from Indo-European verbal formations and introduced into a number of nominal forms,e.g. agent nouns (nomina agentis) with the (verbal) suffix *-teh₂-, e.g. PIE. *h₂erh₃-i̯e-ti ‘he ploughs’ PIE. *h₂erh₃-teh₂-i̯e-ti ‘he frequently (or constantly) ploughs’ PIE. *h₂erh₃-teh₂-s m. ‘a man whofrequently (or constantly) ploughs the earth’, i.e. ‘ploughman, farmer’ PIE. dial. *h₂erh₃-teh₂-i̯o-s m.‘id.’. The author concludes that the Proto-Indo-European archetype *h₂erh₃-teh₂-(i̯o)-s originally denoted‘a person who frequently (or constantly) ploughs the earth’. Put differently, the Indo-Europeannominal suffix *-teh₂-, attested in certain agent nouns in Baltic, Greek, Slavic and Tocharian, wascharacterized by the iterative-frequentative aspect taken over from the corresponding verbs in *-teh₂-.The original semantic difference, reconstructible for the Indo-European proto-language, has beencompletely forgotten in most of the daughter languages. This is why the Ancient Greek noun ἀρότηςm. ‘plougman, farmer’ (< PIE. *h₂erh₃-téh₂-s m.), which originally denoted ‘a person who frequentlyor constantly ploughs the earth’, seems to be fully synonymous with ἀροτήρ m. ‘plougman, farmer’(< PIE. *h₂erh₃-tér-s m.) which originally indicated a man who is ploughing currently but not constantly.The same semantic difference must have existed in Baltic (e.g. Lith. artójas ‘ploughman, farmer’,OPruss. artoys ‘farmer’ vs. Lith. arėjas m. ‘plougman’, Latv. arẽjs m. ‘ploughman, farmer’), as wellas in Slavic (e.g. Pol. rataj ‘ploughman, farmer’ vs. oracz m. ‘ploughman’).The author considers anew the origin of the Slavic suffix *-tajь, taking into account new Tochariandata which feature the agentive suffix -tau (e.g. Toch. B. olyitau ‘boatman’ : Toch. AB olyi; Toch. Bkäryorttau ‘trader, merchant’ : karyor ‘buying, business negotiation’), as well as the iterative-frequentativefeature of the verbal suffix *-teh₂- in the Indo-European languages. The iterative-frequentativeaspect of the Indo-European suffix *-teh₂- is securely preserved in the Latin verbal system, cf. Lat. eō,īre ‘to go, walk, move, pass’, Gk. εἶμι ‘id.’ (< PIE. *h₁ei- ‘to go’) vs. Lat. itō, itāre (verbum iterativum velintensivum) ‘to go, march’, Gk. ἰτητέον (adiectivum verbale) (< PIE. *h₁i-teh₂- ‘to go frequently’). Itis suggested that the iterative-frequentative (and perhaps intensive) meaning of the suffix *-teh₂- wasadopted from Indo-European verbal formations and introduced into a number of nominal forms,e.g. agent nouns (nomina agentis) with the (verbal) suffix *-teh₂-, e.g. PIE. *h₂erh₃-i̯e-ti ‘he ploughs’ PIE. *h₂erh₃-teh₂-i̯e-ti ‘he frequently (or constantly) ploughs’ PIE. *h₂erh₃-teh₂-s m. ‘a man whofrequently (or constantly) ploughs the earth’, i.e. ‘ploughman, farmer’ PIE. dial. *h₂erh₃-teh₂-i̯o-s m.‘id.’. The author concludes that the Proto-Indo-European archetype *h₂erh₃-teh₂-(i̯o)-s originally denoted‘a person who frequently (or constantly) ploughs the earth’. Put differently, the Indo-Europeannominal suffix *-teh₂-, attested in certain agent nouns in Baltic, Greek, Slavic and Tocharian, wascharacterized by the iterative-frequentative aspect taken over from the corresponding verbs in *-teh₂-.The original semantic difference, reconstructible for the Indo-European proto-language, has beencompletely forgotten in most of the daughter languages. This is why the Ancient Greek noun ἀρότηςm. ‘plougman, farmer’ (< PIE. *h₂erh₃-téh₂-s m.), which originally denoted ‘a person who frequentlyor constantly ploughs the earth’, seems to be fully synonymous with ἀροτήρ m. ‘plougman, farmer’(< PIE. *h₂erh₃-tér-s m.) which originally indicated a man who is ploughing currently but not constantly.The same semantic difference must have existed in Baltic (e.g. Lith. artójas ‘ploughman, farmer’,OPruss. artoys ‘farmer’ vs. Lith. arėjas m. ‘plougman’, Latv. arẽjs m. ‘ploughman, farmer’), as wellas in Slavic (e.g. Pol. rataj ‘ploughman, farmer’ vs. oracz m. ‘ploughman’).
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The paper presents the oldest Slavic borrowings in Hungarian together with a reconstruction of theSlavic dialectal landscape of the Carpathian Basin at the time when Hungarian tribes arrived thereat the end of the 9th century. According to some phonetic criteria, it seems that Hungarians foundtwo main Slavic dialects in their new homeland: Pannonian Slavic with mixed West and South Slavicfeatures, and Bulgarian Slavic. The dialects of the Bulgarian type might be attributed to today’s north--eastern Hungary and the neighboring districts of Slovakia.The paper presents the oldest Slavic borrowings in Hungarian together with a reconstruction of the Slavic dialectal landscape of the Carpathian Basin at the time when Hungarian tribes arrived there at the end of the 9th century. According to some phonetic criteria, it seems that Hungarians found two main Slavic dialects in their new homeland: Pannonian Slavic with mixed West and South Slavic features, and Bulgarian Slavic. The dialects of the Bulgarian type might be attributed to today’s north- -eastern Hungary and the neighboring districts of Slovakia.
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The paper discusses a method for discovering important concepts of culture through the process of scrutinizing the most numerous sets of synonyms (which are treated as names of entrenched and salient concepts of the given language’s culture), and subsequently combining them in a set of cultural concept networks. The author focuses on the evolution of cultural concepts and the linguistic material from %th and th c. dictionaries of synonyms, and the Polish version of WordNet which served as the base for the analysis. The paper shows the evolution of some of the concepts of culture established in the %th c. and still vivid in present day discourse of collective identity.
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Polish dialectal words with the -acja formant can be divided into two groups: 1) words with Latin roots borrowed directly from Latin or through the mediation of West European languages, e.g. administracja < administrować (Lat. administratio < administrare); mobilizacja < mobilizować (French mobilisation < mobiliser, German Mobilisation < mobilisieren; Lat. mobilis); 2) words with Slavic or German roots (in words borrowed from German), e.g. marnacja < marnować (the Slavic root marn); pielęgnacja < pielęgnować (the German word pflegen). The present article describes both groups. A more detailed description of the second group is presented in a separate paper (Reichan 2012).
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The article presents the lives and mutual relations between two outstanding Polish scholars, professors of lingusistics and philology at universities in Russia and Germany at the end of the Partitions of Poland. Brückner in Berlin and Baudouin de Courtenay in Petersburg (earlier Kazan and Dorpat) can be considered amabssadors of Polish culture and research. The relations between them were a mixture of reverence and contempt, involving Baudouin’s students, Kruszewski and Ułaszyn who remained in conflict with Brückner. Their fate and the decisions made by both leading figures of Polish linguistics before, during and after the Great War of 1914–1918, show the difference in their approach to linguistic research and contemporary political issues.
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The great Polish linguist Jan Baudouin de Courtenay spoke many times of the issue of nationality and problems related to it. He stated concisely: “If one strictly abides by the freedom of conscience and respect for human dignity, one may consciously not include oneself in any nationality, as well as one may consciously include oneself in and emotionally belong to two or more nationalities.” In tsarist times he promoted the idea of federalization of the Russian empire and granting autonomy to other nationalities; in independent Poland he defended the rights of national minorities. Thanks to his bold and consistent attitude, de Courtenay gained great respect among people. In ## he was nominated by members of national minorities as a candidate for the president of Poland. De Courtenay was particularly sensitive to confusing the concepts of nationality and citizenship.
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Based on a selection of de Courtenay’s letters, the paper presents those aspects of everyday life which characterize him as a teacher, publicist, and an active participant in social and political events. Only a fragment of de Courtenay’s vast correspondence has been used. His letters made it possible to focus on less known areas of his life, such as work in various scientific centres and contacts with other linguists, but also with social activists and publishers. They show de Courtenay’s attitude towards various events through which he lived: revolution, war, change of workplace. They also allow us a peek into some of his personality traits. Letters can be treated as a source of knowledge about the cultural and social reality.
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The aim of this article is to present the significance of Gilles Deleuze’s Essays Critical and Clinical in the possibly most coherent way. One of the main themes of the text is the opposition between the subjectivity produced by structuralististic authors and the subjectivity that is incomplete, unspecified, emerging from eternal motion of becoming oneself, which is defended by Deleuze. The essential concepts of this opposition are language, time, madness and judgment.
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