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Próba ujęcia zagadnienia
The article constitutes the attempt to formulate remarks and hypotheses referring to the mentality of the elite of Toruń’s burghers in the 17th and the first half of the 18th century, mainly on the basis of the research concerning the history of the culture of Toruń in this period. Toruń’s elite consisted of the few rich members of the proud patriciate and the group of the so called “Scholars” (Gelehrte) – people of various backgrounds, who, having acquired the university education, made a political career in the town and representatives of professions requiring a much better education” priests, teachers, doctors, pharmacists, lawyers and officials of the city authorities. The factors which united all those people in one group was the Protestant religious community (Lutherans), family, social and economic connections. The mentality of Toruń’s inhabitants was affected greatly by the life in a big city where goods were exchanged and people travelled from the north to the south and the east, and from the west to the north and east. Toruń was traditionally connected with Gdańsk and the Baltic Sea, Germany, the Netherlands, England and the Scandinavian countries. The mentality of the patriciate and burghers was imbued with religiousness in the Lutheran or Calvinist sense. The Protestant model of personal life filled with science and work prevailed. At the same time the mentality of Toruń’s burghers, in the first place those who spoke Polish and had direct contacts with noblemen and Catholics, was affected by the Baroque-Sarmatian models promoting the joy of life, the pursuit of luxury and presenting oneself from the best side. A case in point is Jakub Kazimierz Rubinkowski (1668-1749) – a nobleman and burgher of Toruń. This postmaster and burgrave of Toruń combined the features typical of the mentality of the noblemen and burghers. Toruń’s patriciate adopted many customs from noblemen and magnates, which was reflected in fashion, ceremonies, funerals, weddings, etc. Like noblemen, patricians purchased land, set up small “folwarks” and erected summer mansions in the countryside. Inhabitants of Toruń were mentally connected with inhabitants of Gdańsk. Yet, the mentality of Gdańsk’s inhabitants was mainly affected by the fact of living in a harbor open to the sea. Toruń was more closely connected with the Polish-Sarmatian background. What should be underlined is the ability to adapt and co-exist of various groups along with the ability to create a coherent whole. Toruń’s burghers were capable of reconciliating the material (the sphere of business and economy) with the spiritual (the sphere of belief and existential fear).
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The Michaelite Fathers (The Congregation of Saint Michael the Archangel) were the last to arrive in the territory of the Chełmno diocese among several orders which had started to operate there during the interwar period. At the same time, their arrival in Toruń was the only case of the order being brought to a given area by a clergyman of the diocese. Despite being involved in the work of St. Mary’s Rosary Institute from the beginning of 1939, the Michaelites did not manage to find their place in the sacral space of the town. They were not to blame for this. When Germans took over Toruń in the first days of September 1939, the only Michaelite was forced to leave the city. Nevertheless, the first steps in the work of the ministry in the city and dioceses had been already taken. The Michaelites returned to Toruń in 1948. They restored their activity in the district of Bydgoskie Przedmieście with a modest small chapel and building of the Rosary Institute. Originally, the priests exercised pastoral ministry among the inhabitants of the district, and later of the whole city, helping parish priests of other parish churches in Toruń. From year to year the congregation extended the scope of its activity among children and young people (until 1961 they taught religion at schools, later in special classrooms adjacent to parish churches), helping the poor, the sick, the handicapped, the blind. They worked also away from Toruń such as in the ministry centre, the parish church in Górsk, where the monks manager to build a sculpture commemorating the death of Rev. Popiełuszko. Prior to WWII, the Michaelites started to make an effort to have their own church built. They continued their efforts after the end of the war. The works lasted over 30 years. In 1949 the monks opened a public chapel, which was later extended, along with a monastic house. The plans of the construction of the church were ready in 1957. In 1963 a lot where the church was to be erected was acquired. The next step in the process of the creation of the Michaelites’ monastic houses in Toruń was the foundation of an independent pastoral centre in 1970. In 1976 the Roman Catholic Parish Church of Saint Michael the Archangel was set up in Toruń. Yet, the cornerstone was laid down in 1983 and consecrated in 1987.
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On the basis of available sources and selected literature, the author presents some information and insights about the insufficiently researched ecclesial and lay past of Podgorje in the modern and contemporary period. Until demilitarisation in 1873 and the return of the Military Frontier under the administration of the ban in 1881 Podgorje was divided between the Smiljan company in the Lika and the Sveti Juraj company in the Otok regiment. Only Karlobag was a military community,a ‘castellanat’ and free port. From 1809 to 1813 Podgorje was under French rule within MilitaryCroatia as part of the Illyrian Provinces, and then again under Austrian (Habsburg) rule. The local people were Croats, mostly Catholics and speakers of Štokavian. They were poor peasants who during the Military Frontier period also served military service. They cultivated the poor land, bredcattle on the slopes of Velebit, made clothes and simple footwear, cut trees for masts, fished, begged and were rarely involved in any small business. Inhabitants along the sea dressed "po gradsku" ("in the town style"), whilst those in the hills "po bunjevačku" ("like the Bunjevci"), as Podgorje priests wrote in 1850. Between the two world wars, the majority of the people of Podgorje still lived the established pastoral life according to the ways that were passed from generation to generation.Always in need, more hungry than full, they lacked drinking water, e.g. in Cesarica in 1937 there was one well for the one thousand inhabitants. The developmental lagging behind of Podgorje during the time of the monarchical Yugoslavia continued after the ordeals of the Second World Wart hrough the stagnation of the place during socialist Yugoslavia. The completion of the construction of the Adriatic highway – the magistrale – in 1965 helped the development of tourism, particularlyin Karlobag which gained a motel and ferry dock, however the lack of drinking water, the dumping of rubbish into the sea, the illegal construction of buildings and other problems hindered this development. At the same time political life was under the monopoly of the party, the Catholic Church was separate from the state and socially marginalised, and the emigration of people and the fall in the birth rate took on cataclysmic dimensions. Under such conditions Podgorje faced the Homeland War and the state independence of the Republic of Croatia.
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The second International Multidisciplinary Conference Mongols: Traditions and Modernity took place on September 11–13, 2019 at the Russian State University for the Humanities (RSUH), Moscow.1 The meeting was organized by the Centre for Typological and Semiotic Folklore Studies (RSUH), the Institute for Oriental and Classical Studies (the Higher School of Economics, Russia), the Department for Estonian and Comparative Folklore (University of Tartu, Estonia), and the Institute for Mongolian Studies (National University of Mongolia, Mongolia).
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Protopresbyter-Stavrophor Stevan M. Dimitrijevich was the first Serbian scholar who systematically examined Serbian-Russian Church connections throughout the History. He began research in this field during his studies on The Spiritual Academy in Kiev in the last decade of the nineteenth century. He examined in details materials related to the Serbian Church History in the Archives of The Russian Royal Office of External Affairs in Moscow and The Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church in Saint Petersburg. Dimitrijevich wrote one of the best Serbian candidate dissertations on Russian spiritual academies in 1898. It was related to diplomatic missions of the representatives from the Serbian Orthodox Church to Russia from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century. Stevan Dimitrijevich continued his work in the same field upon his return to the homeland. He published an article about Serbian-Russian Church relationships in the seventeenth century in the scientific journal of the Serbian Royal Academy in 1900 and 1901. That article caught the attention of the key representatives of the Serbian Church historiography of that time. Among them were Archimandrite Ilarion (Ruvarac), Archimandrite Nicephor (Ducich), and Milutin Jaksich. Dimitrijevich published the Russian archive materials about the Serbian Orthodox Church in publications of the Serbian Royal Academy during the years and decades to follow. These archive materials are still an unavoidable source for any serious research in the field of Serbian-Russian Church relations. Stevan M. Dimitrijevich concluded his work with the synthetic study about Serbian-Russian Church relations from the twelfth until the twentieth century. It was published in The Calendar of the Serbian Orthodox Church for the Year of 1948. Stevan M. Dimitrijevich‘s legacy placed him among the best experts on Serbian-Russian Church relations, as well as spiritual and cultural connections.
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Incarnation, as defined in its simplistic form, in which God assumes a human nature, is at the heart of Christian doctrine. The uniqueness of the Incarnation, in Christian doctrine as opposed to other religious traditions, is incorporated into and among other Bible texts and into the Gospel according to John 1:1–18. This article will discuss some of the philosophies that existed at the time, which supposedly influenced the Gospel of Saint John. Thus, we will try to understand how some of these philosophies interpret incarnation in forms that do not necessarily reflect incarnation as is traditionally understood in Christianity (where God becomes flesh). This article opted for a special structure of consolidation, primarily from the belief that the Gospel of John differs from historical and contemporary philosophical tradition to the time it was written and therefore begins with the removal of Gnostic philosophies and teachings that have been assimilated in the Gospel of John. This indicated the independence and uniqueness of the writing of the evangelist John. The article also provides a list of fundamental beliefs by Christians of incarnate logos also supported by some historians the first and second century. These beliefs are then compared to concepts such as theophany, apotheosis, theosis, deification, canonization, anthropomorphism, to which Huxley is alluded to, as being equated with logos.
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The present study aims to prove the importance of the formative valence of the religious education, in forming and development of the moral conscience and conduct of the young generation, in the context of major changes, brought by postmodernism. Economists, political scientists, historians, sociologists and theologians analyze from each point of view, the crisis in which the humanity is struggling today. This crisis has many facets; it is caused by historical reasons but also current ones and, in turn, it generates, on medium and long term, the unpredictable effects, but certainly harmful to humans. In the current context, the worst part of this crisis is the religious, spiritual one; it’s the drama of man who is losing his soul identity, because firstly he lost his national, cultural and educational identity. This phenomenon occurs because man today doesn’t receive a good education anymore, to fortify him for the battle with life and to offer him the conditions of a normal spiritual and human growth.
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The Livonian Chronicle of Henry is one of the most important cornerstones of Latvian “historical memory”. One of the most ideologically problematic issues is the question of the relationship between invaders and local Orthodox rulers. This topic is closely related to the extent of the Christian faith among the local population before the German mission. Currently, most Latvian researchers literally take over the chronicle that the first missionaries to the Livs were Germans, but in Latgale lands Orthodoxy had spread only into the ruling circles. Archaeologists, on the other hand, lack a clear answer to the question: Why up to the 16th century cult items of the Byzantine rite survived to the inhabitants of today’s Eastern part of Latvia? Furthermore – Why was the creation of Latin dioceses and the dissemination of the Latin burial ritual in the area delayed? These phenomena are related to the continuity of the burial ritual from the 12th to the 14th century, which is usually associated with the supposedly formal Christianity of the natives in the 13th century and their subsequent double faith. As medieval chronicle research has reached a new level of understanding of the source in recent decades, it would also be time to look at the highlighted issues differently. The article addresses the local political events of interest to us in Livonia, based both on medieval theological postulates and in the context of global political developments of the time, which were of particular concern to the spiritual authorities. It is important to note that the establishment of Livonia took place at a time when the Roman Church was beginning active efforts to join the Byzantine rite Church. The Conquest of Constantinople in 1204 opened up unprecedented political opportunities that were realised in church unions in several countries (Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, Galicia). In both the conquered Greece and the lands of the union, the Latin did not require a change in the language or ritual of the liturgy. Subordination to Rome and administrative unity with the West were immediately demanded, but the changes were postponed. Thus, the lack of information on church construction, congregation formation, and tithe enforcement in both the Jersik Principality and eastern Tolova is logical: Latin practice in the newly joined Byzantine rite lands shows that in Livonia, in the Slavic language.
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The problem of death in one of the largest reformation centres in Grand Duchy of Lithuania – Kėdainiai Evangelical Reformed church, focusing on Jonušava (“New Kėdainiai”) church and cemetery, from the 3rd decade of the 17th century to the mid-19th century, is analysed in this article. The elite of this denomination has mainly been studied in historiography, and it has made various controversial statements, the validity of which is also worth verifying. The aim of this article is to discuss the burial sites of Kėdainiai Evangelical Reformed – the cemetery and the cemetery church in Jonušava, the construction of burial sites, changes in infrastructure, and the dynamics of burials. The study uses several methodological approaches, narrative and statistical, palaeographic, historical cartography and epigraphic methods. It is emphasised that the results of the Kėdainiai study conflict with the statement expressed in historiography that “evangelicals did not value the place of the funeral, and their cemeteries were usually moved outside the city”. The study has shown that, at least in Kėdainiai, the emergence of the Jonušava cemetery was a forced act after the loss of St. George’s Church. Later, another cemetery was established in the very centre of the city. In conclusion, the burial sites were, however, immortalised with various burial monuments, albeit more modest compared with Catholics or Lutherans. In addition, much was determined by the social status of individuals and the economic opportunities of relatives. It is necessary to perform an analysis of the burial sites of other evangelical Reformed GDLs in order of more extensive generalisations.
More...History, Patronages, and Insight into the Teutonic Order and the Christian Population in Prussia (Thirteenth–Fifteenth Centuries)
This article summarizes the history of the relics of St Barbara in Althaus Kulm (Starogród Chełmiński), a topic with extensive research in Polish and German circles, but only recently addressed by scholarship in English. It begins with an overview of the relics’ history and a summary of St Barbara’s vita, pointing out the quick rise in her cult in the Teutonic Order’s Prussian territory (Ordensland). Following this, it assesses the function of the relics through three lenses: warfare, daily life, and as a symbol of the Order’s power using three methodological frameworks. These are hierophany (manifestations of the sacred) for warfare, naming practices for studying the impact of St Barbara on the local population, and as a reflection of the Order’s territorial power (Landesherrschaft). The article ultimately demonstrates that the relics were a significant element of the multifaceted structure of religious life in medieval Prussia, both within and outside of the Teutonic Order. Appended to the text are two previously unpublished accounts of the relics of St Barbara and their arrival in Althaus, demonstrating the reputation of the shrine not just in the Ordensland, but within Christendom. It concludes with a summary of the research findings, and a consideration of these findings in light of more ‘recent’ interpretations of the Teutonic Order and the Prussian Crusades.
More...Wizja świata – propaganda – pobożność i wartości
The subject of the article is an analysis of a nineteenth-century folk song originating from Lesser Poland and the region of Kielce, which describes the events of the Tumult of Toruń (1724). The author used the historical method (factual analysis), anthropological method (theories of memory and orality) and discourse analysis (a written text as a reflection of mentality) to focus on three main issues. The first one is a polemic with the previous opinions of researchers, who argued that the folk song faithfully represents the events of the riots in Toruń (Thorn). In fact, it seems to be more of a propaganda text. It is impossible to determine precisely the place and time it was created, however, it seems that its author was a clergyman who wanted to convey his vision of the Tumult to the lower social strata. The song presents the community of Toruń as divided into two hostile camps, namely aggressive Protestants and pious Catholics. The article embedded the images of both sides in broader contexts of the German-Protestant stereotype and religious polemics in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The last part of the text is an attempt to answer the question why this particular song was internalized by the common people. The interest in the Tumult of Toruń could result from its sensational character, the fact that it was very well fitted to folk culture, and the possibility to derive satisfaction from the course of this event. The article ends with the presentation of folk songs as an interesting research material for historians, cultural anthropologists and scholars conducting interdisciplinary memory studies.
More...Przedmowa Samuela Schelwiga do „Grundliches und wolgesetztes Bedencken, Von der Pietisterey” (1693)
The article presents an analysis of the foreword by Samuel Schelwig (1643–1715), pastor of the Holy Trinity Church and rector of the Academic Gymnasium in Gdańsk (Danzig), to the opinion issued by the theological faculty of the University of Leipzig on Pietism and its founder Philipp Jakob Spener (1635–1705). The opinion was published in 1693 under the title ‘Gründliches und wolgesetztes Bedencken, Von der Pietisterey’. The author of the foreword made an assessment of the religious condition of the new movement and also pointed out that its supporters misunderstood the essence of piety, comparing them to medieval and early modern heretics. In this way, he anticipated the subsequent harsh criticism of Pietism and initiated a religious dispute on this issue that continued in Gdańsk from 1692/1693 to 1703. At the same time, he contributed to the dissemination of a debate on religious fanaticism and attempts to modernise pastoral activities of Lutheran preachers. The analysis of the source text is part of broader research into the history of the Pietistic movement in Gdańsk, which has incorporated research methods in the fields of philology and history, as well as biblical hermeneutics. This approach has made it possible to determine the origin of the conflict on Pietism in Gdańsk, to identify the related phenomena, events and key doctrinal issues, and to interpret and evaluate the theological value of the investigated polemic.
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Eduard Lazorík: Stredoveké rukopisné fragmenty na tlačiach 16. storočia z fondu františkánskych knižníc Slovenskej národnej knižniceCatalogus fragmentorum. Tomus I. Martin : Slovenská národná knižnica, Odbor správa a spracovania HKD a HKF, 2019, 277 s. ISBN 9-788081-494416
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The present study examines from the perspective of dogmatics Eduard Böhl’s book entitled Christologie des Alten Testamentes oder Auslegung der wichtigsten Messianischen Weissagungen published in 1882. The study deals mainly with the introductory chapter. E. Böhl, professor of Reformed Systematic Theology at the Protestant Theological Faculty in Vienna from 1864 to 1899, was strongly influenced by the theological vision of H. F. Kohlbrugge (1803–1875), a Reformed pastor from Elberfeld, Germany. As a systematic theologian he followed the orthodox Reformed position which emphasised the inseparable unity of Scripture. From this hermeneutic stance he defended the Christology of the Old Testament. Böhl testified that God in Christ, in fact, repeated, confirmed, and accomplished on a higher level what had happened in the lives of Old Testament confessors. Old Testament writings legitimize Jesus’ coming, incarnation, salvation, suffering, death, and resurrection. The essence of Böhl’s standpoint is that some of the messianic texts do not refer directly to Christ, but above all to “types”, figures who carry the promise of salvation. Other parts, however, such as the psalms discussed in detail in his book, are unequivocal pieces of evidence of the promises of the Messiah who is embodied in Jesus Christ. In support of his view, he cited “the exegesis of the New Testament,” the apostles and evangelists, and the Targums, the Book of Enoch, and the Talmud among the Jewish religious literature. With his theological vision and writings, through his Hungarian disciples, Böhl exerted a decisive influence on the Reformed theological thinking and the New Orthodoxy in Hungary. This theological trend took up the fight against the spread of theological liberalism with its centre in Debrecen during the second half of the nineteenth century. Böhl, as a defender of traditional Calvinism, was a sure point of reference with respect to important theological issues.
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Eduard Böhl (1836–1903), a scholar of the second half of the nineteenth century, was professor of dogmatics at the Protestant Theological Faculty in Vienna for 35 years. His lifework was his “Dogmatics”, which he wrote for 23 years. In this unfairly forgotten work, he formulates cardinal Reformed beliefs providing the reader with accurate guidance regarding theology, anthropology, soterology, and eschatology. This study analyses Böhl’s teaching based on the last major chapter of his book, concerned with the “End of Times”. In order to gain a better understanding of the theological issues discussed by Böhl, this work parallels Gábor Szeremlei’s chapter on “Eschatology” which can be found in his book of Dogmatics entitled “Christian Religious Science”. A study of this issue provides insights into what theologians of the nineteenth century formulated in relation to this question, and how biblical approaches and ideas emerged within the debates of orthodox and liberal theology.
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The article examines post-baptismal catechumenate as a pastoral institution that was developed after Second Vatican Council. It explores post-baptismal catechumenate’s relationship to baptismal catechumenate as it existed in the early Church and was restored by Vatican II. The article discusses post-baptismal catechumenate as part of the Church’s attempts to find solution to the problem of “baptised unbelievers” that occurred in the second part of the 20th century. It analyses the magisterial texts that address relationship between valid sacraments and their spiritual consequences. Finally, the article shows ambiguity of the concept of post-baptismal catechumenate in the documents of the Catholic magisterium.
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Review of: Andrea Kovács: Monuments of Medieval Liturgical Poetry in Hungary. Sequences – Critical edition of melodies. Musica Sacra Hungarica 1 Liszt Ferenc Academy of Music – Church Music Research Group – Argumentum Publishing House, Budapest 2017, 735 s. ISSN 2498-9185. ISBN 978-963-7181-55-9
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