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‘A more protective Europe’ What to expect from the French EU Presidency in 2008?
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‘A more protective Europe’ What to expect from the French EU Presidency in 2008?

Author(s): Adrienn Nász / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

Under the motto ‘a more protective Europe’, france took over the rotating EU presidency in the second half of 2008 with a keen eye on energy, climate change, defence and immigration policy. The idea is to defend Europe’s social and economic model from the pressures of globalisation. The French Presidency occurs just three years after French voters rejected Europe’s cherished Constitutional project, throwing the Eu into a long-lasting political crisis. But on the very day his election as French President Nicholas Sarkozy promised he would put his country ‘back in Europe’, notably by helping to resolve the bloc’s institutional impasse with the adoption of the new ‘Lisbon Treaty’ and by better involving citizens in Eu debates. According to a survey carried out by IFOP (Institut Français d’Opinion Publique) 61% of French belive that after the failure of the constitutional referendum in May 2005 the French Presidency of the Eu will be a good opportunity for France to increase its influence in Europe. France prepared to focus on pressing external challenges such as climate change, energy security, Russia policy and EU enlargement; now she will have to turn inward once again to put time and energy into fixing the EU’s creaking institutions. The Irish referendum on the Lisbon Treaty has put off the reform plans 2009 onwards as the 860,000 ‘no’ voters in Ireland have blocked the path of a half-billion Europeans.

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‘FIXING’ THE SOCIAL CONTRACT: A BLUEPRINT FOR INDIVIDUAL TAX REFORM

‘FIXING’ THE SOCIAL CONTRACT: A BLUEPRINT FOR INDIVIDUAL TAX REFORM

Author(s): Giorgio Beretta / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2019

In the face of population ageing and demographic decline, nowadays all countries compete for an increasingly valuable asset: human capital. Indeed, the drain of human capital from one country to another concerns not only highly-skilled individuals seeking job opportunities abroad, but also pensioners relocating to sunnier and more tax-friendly jurisdictions. Absent global action, the risk of uncoordinated and unilateral measures taken by countries to increase and protect their own tax base, with adverse effects both from the inter-nation and the intra-nation equity perspective, is very concrete. So far, however, neither the OECD nor the European Union have developed specific policies or measures in the domain of individual taxation. Arguing that scope of reform exists also in this field, the article explores various policies and measures as a blueprint for individual taxation reform, with the double aim to curb tax competition among countries and fix the crumbling social contract.

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“A Europe that Protects”: Austria’s EU Council Presidency
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“A Europe that Protects”: Austria’s EU Council Presidency

Author(s): Łukasz Ogrodnik / Language(s): English

The number one priority of the Austrian presidency of the EU Council, which began on 1 July, is security. This issue is subordinated to the other main points of the presidency programme: migration, digitisation, and integration of the Western Balkans with the EU. Although the Austrian approach is similar to the Polish one in the sphere of migration policy, differences remain regarding the EU’s Multiannual Financial Framework for 2021–2027 (MFF), energy policy, and the European Commission’s enforcement of the rule of law.

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“CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE” CONCEPT’S EVOLUTION AND PROSPECTS WITHIN THE EURO-ATLANTIC FRAMEWORK

“CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE” CONCEPT’S EVOLUTION AND PROSPECTS WITHIN THE EURO-ATLANTIC FRAMEWORK

Author(s): Silvia – Alexandra Zaharia / Language(s): English Issue: 45/2012

The present article wishes to discuss the evolution and prospects of the concept of “critical” infrastructure within the Euro – Atlantic current framework. The starting point of our argumentation is the idea that regional security is determined, to a great extent, by the functioning, within optimal parameters, of certain systems of critical infrastructures. The aim of the paper is to understand, through a comparative analysis, of the place and role of critical infrastructure security in the United States of America and in the European Union, the legislative guarantees as well as the implementation solutions envisaged on the two sides of the Atlantic Ocean in order to ensure the protection and functioning of critical infrastructures. Moreover, by debating the conceptual evolution of critical infrastructure, we seek to identify potential prospects of efficient development for critical infrastructure security systems.

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“Do As I Say, Not As I Do”: The European Union, Eastern Europe and Minority Rights
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“Do As I Say, Not As I Do”: The European Union, Eastern Europe and Minority Rights

Author(s): Michael Johns / Language(s): English Issue: 04/2003

This article tests the assumption that the European Union has forced the potential new members from Eastern Europe to adhere to standards regarding the treatment of national minorities current member states do not meet. The article examines the treatment of the Russian minorities in Latvia and Estonia and the Roma population in Slovakia compared to the treatment of the Turks in Germanyand the Roma in Italy. Using EU accession reports, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) recommendations, and the Minorities at Risk data set, a double standard becomes apparent. The newly democratized states of Eastern Europe are being forced to choose between the economic advantages of membership in the EU and legislation designed to protect the language and culture of the majoritygroup. The article concludes with an examination of the histories of Estonia and Latvia to illustrate whybeing forced into altering laws concerning culture and citizenship is so difficult.

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“HANG THEM IN TAKSIM” Europe, Turkey and the Future of the Death Penalty
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“HANG THEM IN TAKSIM” Europe, Turkey and the Future of the Death Penalty

Author(s): Author Not Specified / Language(s): English

For almost a year now, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdogan has vowed, in speech after speech, that he is ready to restore the death penalty. Some have dismissed this as political theatre. And yet, Turkey would not be the first country to reintroduce the death penalty after it had fallen out of use. The Kingdom of Italy abolished the death penalty for civilians in 1889, only to see it reintroduced by Mussolini in 1930. The United States did not carry out any executions between 1968 and 1980. Turkey itself has had years of de facto moratoria on executions in the 1960s and 1970s, before carrying out more executions. Human rights progress is never irreversible. || This is a matter of holding the line on a hard-won human rights achievement. It is in the vital interest of all Europeans that this red line is not crossed anywhere in Europe. For Turkey to reintroduce the death penalty – the last execution took place in 1984 – would constitute a serious setback in the global struggle against capital punishment. Europeans should take the threat of the return of capital punishment in Turkey seriously. The EU and the Council of Europe should take every step they can, in time, to make this as unlikely as possible – in Turkey and anywhere else in Europe.

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“Paradoxical” Dissatisfaction among Post-Socialist Farmers with the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy: A Study of Farmers’ Subjectivities in Rural Poland
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“Paradoxical” Dissatisfaction among Post-Socialist Farmers with the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy: A Study of Farmers’ Subjectivities in Rural Poland

Author(s): Aleksandra Bilewicz,Natalia Mamonova,Konrad Burdyka / Language(s): English Issue: 03/2022

Farmers in post-socialist Central and Eastern Europe are the major beneficiaries of the European Union’s (EU) Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), at least in monetary terms. Why, then, are they dissatisfied with the CAP? This study aims to understand farmers’ subjectivities (i.e., judgments shaped by personal opinions and feelings) regarding CAP and compares these subjectivities to the actual impact of CAP in rural areas. It is based on empirical research in the Błaszki commune in central Poland, where the farmers’ movement Agrounia originated. The study has found that in addition to its benefits, CAP created a number of new problems, such as socio-economic differentiation and related tensions in rural communities, misuse of the CAP’s direct payments, disappearance of rural (peasant) lifestyle, and environmental degradation. The empirical material has also revealed the fragile position of Polish farmers in the domestic market, which affects their dignity and self esteem. Agrounia seeks to address the latter issue, yet it faces the problems of farmer mobilization and negative representation in the media. This article contributes to the discussions about the applicability of CAP in the post-socialist context, the impact of farmers’ subjectivities on their practices, and the farmers’ mobilization and social movements in post-socialist countries

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„BREXIT MEANS BREXIT”. REFLECTIONS ON THE LEGAL ASPECTS REGARDING THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE UNITED KINGDOM
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„BREXIT MEANS BREXIT”. REFLECTIONS ON THE LEGAL ASPECTS REGARDING THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE UNITED KINGDOM

Author(s): Ionuț-Bogdan Berceanu / Language(s): English Issue: 01/2017

Following the referendum in which 17 million people voted to leave the EU, Theresa May – the British Prime Minister, has said in various occasions that "Brexit means Brexit"1 and that there will be no attempts to stay within the European Union, even if the process is one complex, without precedent and without a clear result. Apart the political and economic dimensions this procedure implies, there are also some legal issue regarding how it should be done and what will be after “Brexit” will be concluded. Thus, this paper has as main purpose to underline some legal aspects regarding the Brexit and they will be reflected in the United Kingdom and at the European Union level. The research methodology of the paper is mainly qualitative, based on specialty literature review and analyze of regulations.

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„Българин по професия. Българин по потекло” (Записки върху идентичността)
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„Българин по професия. Българин по потекло” (Записки върху идентичността)

Author(s): Mina Hristova / Language(s): Bulgarian Issue: 1/2017

The aim of the article is to provide a possible interpretation of identity in one of the contested border regions on the Balkans well known for the competing politics and interests by the two bordering countries – Bulgaria and Serbia, for the past century. This region is known as „Western Outlands” in the social and political life. The communal memory of the Bulgarian minority in Bosilegrad, Serbia, leads the narration through different historical periods and their respective politics to uncover an identity which has become a survival strategy at the intricate periods. This will reveal a complex picture of the multiple identity levels where the individual and social identity are tightly related and are further shaped by the existing number of internal and external „others.“

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„Много такива хора са, трудно се разбираме с тях”. За границите в трансграничното сътрудничество
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„Много такива хора са, трудно се разбираме с тях”. За границите в трансграничното сътрудничество

Author(s): Petar Petrov / Language(s): Bulgarian Issue: 1/2017

The difficulties in the joined actions of Bulgarian and Turkish partners on projects within the Trans-border Cooperation Program are the result of the influence of framework factors, rather than being due to cultural differences. Asymmetries, mainly economic in nature, influence the aptitudes and actions of both sides. In the prolonged situation of limited financial resources for the Bulgarian side, the projects turn to be of a key importance for it. Thus the Bulgarian partners try to perform their tasks strictly according to the requirements of EU. At the same time, for the Turkish partners the projects seem to be less attractive and thus failing to create motivation for adhering to the formal rules as well as for the timely fulfillment of the engagements which they have undertaken. In order to cope with the problems in their current and future projects, the Bulgarian actors, using experience and knowledge from previous projects, apply action oriented strategies including creation of generalized images of the Turkish partners together with narratives about meetings and conflicts with them.

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„РАЗОМ НАС БАГАТО, НАС НЕ ПОДОЛАТИ”. GEOPOLITYCZNA RYWALIZACJA POLSKO-ROSYJSKA O UKRAINĘ W OKRESIE POMARAŃCZOWEJ REWOLUCJI I PO JEJ ZAKOŃCZENIU

„РАЗОМ НАС БАГАТО, НАС НЕ ПОДОЛАТИ”. GEOPOLITYCZNA RYWALIZACJA POLSKO-ROSYJSKA O UKRAINĘ W OKRESIE POMARAŃCZOWEJ REWOLUCJI I PO JEJ ZAKOŃCZENIU

Author(s): Grzegorz Baziur / Language(s): Polish Issue: 07/2014

In the first part the author described the circumstances of the independence of Ukraine in 1991, the situation in Ukraine socio-political and economic to the autumn of 2004, the problem of separatism on the line: Western Ukraine - Ukraine East. The main part of the article is dedicated to the Orange Revolution: its causes, the conduct and consequences. The author discusses its course in the period 22 November 2004-23 January 2005, noting the protests and Polish diplomacy, the EU and Russia around Ukraine. He discussed the attitude of the government and the opposition, the role of the Polish and the EU in bringing about a repeat of 26 December 2004 the second round of the presidential election won by the candidate of Our Ukraine, Viktor Yushchenko. In the last part of the text the author showed the decomposition of the camp “orange”, completed in January 2010, the victory of pro-Russian Party of Regions leader Viktor Yanukovych in the next presidential election. In its effect on Ukraine to favor returned oligarchs and Yanukovych's policy towards Russia was more dependable than in 2005-2010. The consequence of his policy was the crisis of the Ukrainian system, completed “Euromajdan” – the second revolution years of 2013-2014 and the collapse of Yanukovych. Its aftermath was the annexation of Crimea by Russia and support is still provided for pro-Russian separatists in the east of the country – but that requires a separate analysis.

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Євроінтеграційна стратегія України: ґенеза та особливості реалізації

Євроінтеграційна стратегія України: ґенеза та особливості реалізації

Author(s): A. Tsiatkovska / Language(s): Ukrainian Issue: 16/2019

The article sets out the author’s definition of Ukraine’s European integration strategy as “a common, long-term, consistent plan that does not have a single material expression, defines motion vectors, priority priorities and indicators of the conditions for the formation and development of Ukraine, is accompanied by constant analysis and monitoring, during which it can be adequately adjustments in order to obtain Ukraine membership in the European Union ”and reveals the signs of Ukraine’s European integration strategy. Next, the genesis of relations between Ukraine and the European Union is phased analyzed. So, the entire history of Ukraine-EU relations can be divided into four stages. The first stage: the beginning of the 90s of the XX century - 1997-1998; second stage: 1997-1998 - 2005; third stage: 2005 - 2014; fourth stage: 2014 - present. Each of the stages has its own characteristics and was accompanied by significant events, for example, granting Ukraine the status of a country with a market economy and the signing of important international agreements. Also, the article reveals the features of relations between Ukraine and the European Union and the reasons for the protracted process of obtaining Ukraine full membership in the European Union. These are reasons such as: the development of Ukraine-EU relations during the formation of Ukrainian statehood; reluctance of representatives of the Ukrainian authorities of different times to conscientiously and fully comply with the requirements for obtaining full membership in the European Union; low level of awareness of the population of Ukraine regarding the "pluses" and "minuses" of European integration; geopolitical position of Ukraine; the 2014annexation of the Crimean peninsula and the ongoing armed conflict in eastern Ukraine;procedural aspects in the European Union; the unwillingness of the countries of the European Union to accept Ukraine in its current state; internal problems of the European Union itself. The author proposed the main measures to continue the further successful implementation of Ukraine’s European integration strategy:

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Євроінтеграційні наміри України: частково порівняльний аналіз

Євроінтеграційні наміри України: частково порівняльний аналіз

Author(s): Ljudmila Shimchenko / Language(s): Ukrainian Issue: 20/2013

The article analyzes the accordance of parameters of the economic cooperation of Ukraine and the countries ofWestern Europe, it is investigating the nature of impacts of the processes of European integration on the Ukrainianeconomy.

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Європейський досвід транскордонної взаємодії в інноваційному розвитку підприємств

Європейський досвід транскордонної взаємодії в інноваційному розвитку підприємств

Author(s): Olena Boiko,Olena Borzenko / Language(s): Ukrainian Issue: 51/2021

Leading experts of the world have been studying the issues of cross-border interaction for a long time, and it should be noted that the issue acquired particular importance during the period of European integration. This is a priority in ensuring the security of the state, the formation of a national innovation system, the creation and operation of joint ventures, the development of industries based on innovations. The study identified the main problem that is relevant in the period of European integration, in particular, cross-border interaction of participants in the innovative development of enterprises. The peculiarities of cross-border interaction in the process of functioning of joint ventures based on innovations, including through the development of scientific and industrial parks, were highlighted in their scientific works by outstanding specialists. The problems of the functioning of joint ventures on an innovative basis, including through the creation of organizational forms of innovation, actively studied by scientists, have been identified. However, it requires more detailed further study, in particular, in the development of proposals for improving legislative and other regulatory legal acts on the activities of industrial parks, which can be mechanisms for the innovative development of industry. The statement of tasks consists in defining the basic principles of cross-border interaction in the direction of creating joint ventures on an innovative basis, as well as developing proposals for improving legislative and other regulatory legal acts for the development of special forms of organizing innovation. The aim of the study is to determine the features of cross-border interaction, taking into account the specifics of international experience in the functioning of joint ventures in the field of innovation. The main methods that were used in the research process are analysis, statistical, comparison, legal regulation. The international experience of the peculiarities of the development of cross-border interaction of the countries of the European Union is generalized. The positive aspects of innovative development and the factors constraining development are identified. Consideration of joint ventures in the context of European integration is a significant legacy. Considerable attention is also paid to the development of industrial parks as special forms of organizing innovative activities. Ways of cross-border interaction are proposed. Proposals have been developed to improve cooperation in industrial, scientific and educational spheres in the context of European integration. The field of application of the research results is socio-economic development.

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Інститути громадянського суспільства у процесі реалізації Євроінтеграційної політики

Інститути громадянського суспільства у процесі реалізації Євроінтеграційної політики

Author(s): Ruslan Stepanovich Mokhnyuk / Language(s): Ukrainian Issue: 4/2021

The purpose of the article is to investigate the impact of European integration processes on the development and diversity of civil society institutions in Ukraine. Methodology. The interdisciplinary approach to scientific knowledge in culturology, philosophy, political science, sociology has expanded the complex idea of European integration criteria for the development of public institutions in Ukraine. The culturological method contributed to the introduction of data on the influence of civil society institutions on its development into the research structure. The method of statistical data analysis allowed us to trace the quantitative slice in the direction of increasing the institutions of civil society. The scientific novelty lies in the complexity of the approach to identifying synergies and interdependence of European integration and institutional citizenship processes in Ukraine. Conclusions. Realizing the national interests of Ukraine, the European choice opens new prospects for cooperation with the continent, promotes the development of civil society institutions, provides opportunities for economic progress, strengthens Ukraine's position in the world system of international relations, opens the way to collective structures of common security. Current trends in the development of civil society institutions in Ukraine in the context of European integration policy are: increasing the number of civil society institutions, flexibility of their response to public needs, different areas of their activities, media intensification in consolidating society, focusing on international legislation, use of grant projects; participation in international cultural practices. The scientific support of coordinated interaction of civil society with various branches of government on issues of European integration processes contributes to the improvement of the activity of civil society institutions. To do this, they use cultural, informational, consultative, dialogue, partnership tools for the implementation of European integration reforms in Ukraine. However, it is important to note that the interaction of Western states and civil society institutions is quite active and fruitful in contrast to the situation in Ukraine, where the state is interested in the development of these institutions, but they are not active enough in cooperation and positioning themselves in solving important problems, limited to the fragmentary participation in the life processes of the country.

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Інституційні основи активізації експортоорієнтованої діяльності аграрних підприємств україни в умовах поглибення євроінтеграції

Інституційні основи активізації експортоорієнтованої діяльності аграрних підприємств україни в умовах поглибення євроінтеграції

Author(s): Mykola Zhuk,Yurii Bilyansky / Language(s): Ukrainian Issue: 46/2020

The subject of the research is the theoretical, methodological and practical basis for studying the impact of the institutional environment on the efficiency of export-oriented production of enterprises in the agricultural sector of the economy and the activation of their foreign economic activities in the European agricultural market. The purpose of the work is to develop theoretical foundations and practical recommendations for the implementation of an effective system of institutional support for the activation of export activities of agricultural enterprises in the European development vector. Methodological basis of the article is general scientific methods of theoretical and empirical research, special methods of scientific knowledge. To conduct the research, the following methods were used: dialectical, economic-statistical, balance, normative, economic-mathematical, economic comparisons, grouping, graphic, system-structural analysis and synthesis. Results of work. The article examines the impact of the institutional environment on the development of export-oriented activities of domestic agricultural enterprises in the conditions of deepening the European integration process. The author suggests measures of an institutional and organizational-economic nature aimed at strengthening the export potential of enterprises of the agricultural and food complex and increasing their competitiveness in the common market of agricultural products of the EU member States. The field of application of results. The results and conclusions can be used in the development of a strategy for entering the European market of agricultural products for enterprises of the agricultural and food complex, training specialists in the field of international economic relations and foreign trade. Conclusions. Analysis of the current state of export-oriented activities of Ukrainian enterprises in the agricultural sector of the economy indicates the need for structural and institutional transformation of the system of organization of foreign economic activity of economic entities. In the context of the deepening of the European integration process, the functioning of enterprises in the agricultural sector of the economy is significantly affected by the internal and external institutional and market environment. Accordingly, this is reflected in the economic indicators of their activities and the competitiveness of Ukrainian agricultural products in the European market. Institutional conditions and factors that slow down the entry of Ukrainian agricultural enterprises to the European market are the following: imperfection of the national system of land market relations, lack of effective institutions of ownership and land use; inefficient structural and institutional policy of the state in the agricultural sphere; low level of institutional support, stimulation and regulation of export-oriented activities of agricultural enterprises; non-compliance of domestic agricultural and food products with European requirements and standards; imperfect quality control system for production, storage, transportation of food products, etc.

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Южнокавказкото направление в политиката на добросъседство на ЕС - проблеми и предизвикателства

Южнокавказкото направление в политиката на добросъседство на ЕС - проблеми и предизвикателства

Author(s): Marieta Rabohchiyska / Language(s): Bulgarian Publication Year: 0

The latest EU enlargement waves are to the East, its energy interests and the growing attention on some security matters are leading to increasingly active policy towards the countries of the South Caucasus. The European Parliament first called for several initiatives established later on by the EU, including the appointment in 2003 of an EU Special Representative for the region and the inclusion of the three countries - Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan, in the European Neighbourhood Policy in 2004, and in particular in a newer initiative named the Eastern Partnership in 2009.

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ევროკავშირის სამეზობლო პოლიტიკა და კოვიდ პანდემია საქართველოში

Author(s): Edisher Japharidze / Language(s): Georgian Issue: 5/2021

This paper presents the concept of Europeanization of Georgia's foreign policy, in particular the new formats of the Neighborhood Policy and the Eastern Partnership between Georgia and the EU, which reflects directly from the period of cooperation between Georgia and the EU to the current political reality.What do these formats mean for Georgia? What is its purpose? And what prospects and challenges do these two sides actually have today?The main cornerstone of the relations and cooperation between Georgia and the European Union since 1992 has been the European Neighborhood Policy Platform, which has been implemented at different times with different initiatives and different types of formats. However, one thing is clear that Georgia was more actively involved in bilateral cooperation with other neighboring countries (Ukraine, Belarus, Armenia) than in other countries, and strictly fulfilled the obligations and requirements of the framework programs proposed by the EU. In fact, it made better use of all the opportunities and resources that would significantly prepare it for a eventual return to a single European family, compared to other beneficiary countries. It is no coincidence that today the new democratic government of Georgia expresses its readiness that by 2024 Georgia will apply for full membership in the European Union and Georgia will soon become a full member of the European Union.

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თურქეთი და ევროკავშირში მისი გაერთიანების პრობლემა

თურქეთი და ევროკავშირში მისი გაერთიანების პრობლემა

Author(s): Lasha Khozrevanidze / Language(s): Georgian Issue: 1/2022

In the twenties of the twentieth century, special political processes for the future of the country began in Turkey. In particular, Kemal Ataturk took over the presidency and created the Republic of Turkey, which laid the foundation for the transfer of the Turkish people to the European vector. All of the above opened a new window on Turkey-EU relations. It should be noted that the history of relations between Turkey and the EU dates back to 1987, when official Ankara applied for EU membership. For the successful coronation of the above process in 1990-2000. The Republic of Turkey has implemented a number of important reforms within the country that have met the declared criteria for an EU member state. The above-mentioned reforms were not delayed and Turkey received the first signal from the EU, which was reflected in the Republic of Turkey's accession to the European Customs Union in 1995.The "Justice and Prosperity Party" came to power in Turkey with a majority in 2002, with the aim of joining the European Union as the main political ideology of the party. The ruling party continued its ongoing political reforms within the country, which included improving its legislative framework, as well as a comprehensive package of constitutional amendments that were to become the basis for meeting the criteria for Turkey's EU membership. The article discusses a number of problems and lists the historical preconditions that prevent the Republic of Turkey from joining the European Union. It will be internal political crises or legislative gaps in the country.

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თურქეთი ევროკავშირისკენ მიმავალ გზაზე

თურქეთი ევროკავშირისკენ მიმავალ გზაზე

Author(s): Zaza Beridze / Language(s): Georgian Issue: 1/2021

The relationship between Turkey and European Union was started by the commonwealth relationship between Turkey and Europe and Turkey applied for its membership yet in 1987. The committee has prepared its resolution on December 18, 1989 in which it was stated that the negotiation with Turkey on becoming a member was premature. The committee brought the economic, as well as the political reasons for that, also the fact that there was a dispute between Turkey and Greece and the existing events in Cypress. On February 5, 1990 the committee approved the resolution, according to which Turkey would become a member of the European Union after creating the appropriate environment.In order to meet the necessary criteria for becoming a member of the European Union Turkey has carried out several reforms in 1990s and 2000s that were successful to some degree and on December 13, 1995 the Euro parliament gave the green light to the creation of the customs union. The customs union was a serious step toward Turkey and the European Union getting closer. By getting closer to Turkey the European Union showed the Islamic world that religion is not a hindering factor for the integration. In turn, an aspiration to Europe was strengthened in Turkey. The customs union was an excellent incentive for passing democratic reforms in Turkey that gave political leverage to the supporters of integration in the west.

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Please note that there is a planned full infrastructure maintenance and database upgrade of the CEEOL repository.
The Shibboleth login functionality is temporarily unavailable.
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