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The article deals with the peculiarities and development of architectural theory in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 18th century. The texts on architecture written by Vilnius and Polock Jesuits, local Dominicans and Franciscans as well as in the milieu of secular educational institutions are examined. Conservative and modern aspects of the theory, its objective specialisation, relations with Western European and Polish architectural theory are discussed. In the 18th century Lithuania, interest in architectural theory was increasing though the heritage of this kind is quite slender and mostly unpublished, remains as manuscripts. It means that ideas of local architectural theory did not spread widely and diffused in a rather exclusive environment. On the other hand, these works testify the impact and adaptation of European architectural theory. The first treatises on architecture in the 18th century matured in the milieu of monastic educational institutions (Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans) and were related to the didactic process. Even in the Age of Enlightenment, Lithuanian Jesuits maintained a traditional conservative attitude towards architecture as a part of the ars liberalis world, a branch of the field of mathematics. Architectural treatises by Dominicans Głowicki and Jawerowski, Franciscan Kamieński, priest Dudziński, contrary to the earlier treatises by Jesuits, were dedicated purely to the architectural topics and reflected modern notions of the 18th century European architectural theory. Contacts with European cultural centres (Rome, Bologna) gave impacts to treat architecture and its theory as an independent field of intellectual activity, encouraged crystallisation of local architectural theory and contributed to raising the status of the profession of the architect.
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The Church of St. Paul and Peter in Šiauliai is one of the greatest and in the matter of style the most puzzling example of sacral architecture of the 17th century in the region of Samogitia. This paper sorts out and completes information about its origin as well as attempts to point at the sources of artistic forms used in the building. As an outcome of a comparing-stylistic analysis it signalizes an issue of the reception of French mannerism in the area of the Great Duchy of Lithuania.The parish in Šiauliai was established in the 15th century. A decision to build a new church was taken between the years 1610 and 1616. Responsible for it were a bishop of Samogitia Nicolas Pac and lieutenant of the region prince Nicolas Christopher Radziwiłł nicknamed “Sierotka”. After the death of the prince in 1616 the successor of his office, Jerome Wołłowicz, was in charge of the church building. During his term of office the church was finished in its main part. It was consecrated in October 1634 by George Tyszkiewicz, bishop of Samogitia.The analysis of the forms used in the church show far-going similarities with French architecture from the 16th century in the plan and space disposition of the building as well as in its construction, till the decorative elements like stonework. Those forms are mostly derived from the artistic œvre of Philibert de l’Orme and Jacques Androuet du Cerceau. The existence of such artistic change is plausible when one takes into consideration the education and journey of the first founder, prince Radziwiłł. The exact ways of this exchange still need to be clarified.
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The present paper is dedicated to the publication and discussion of a document that has not yet appeared in scholarly circulation and historiography, namely the construction agreement of the Vitebsk Bernardine Church of St. Anthony, which is held in the National History Archive of the Republic of Belarus in Minsk. The agreement was made on 10 February 1742 in Vilnius (and enacted on 15 December 1744 at the Chancellery of the Castle Court in Vitebsk) with the participation of Giuseppe Fontana and the endower of the Vitebsk Bernardine Convent, the wife of the Vitebsk Voivode Marcjan Michał Ogiński, Tekla Anna Ogińska. The historical circumstances of this commission and its significance for the professional career of architect Giuseppe Fontana are revealed. The agreement under discussion not only testified to Fontana’s authorship, but also revealed the main reason why he chose the north-eastern lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for his residence and professional activity. The acquaintance with the Ogiński family that belonged to the ruling elite and its patronage opened for the architect the prospects of work in the territory of Vitebsk and the neighbouring voivodeships. Fontana’s creative legacy allows us to assess the architect’s contribution to the development of architecture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 18th c. and assert that along with Johann Christoph Glaubitz he was one of the most productive and famous architects of his time.
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The current paper analyses the works dedicated to the funeral of Vitebsk voivode Marcjan Michał Ogiński - a sermon delivered by Jesuit Felicjan Nowodworski, and occasional architecture of the Vitebsk Jesuit Church. The paper aims to explore how an ideal portrait of a nobleman is created and how the biography of a concrete person is conveyed in these works. The topics developed in the sermon and repeated in the funerary décor allow us to talk not only about the cultural images migrating between the text and the image, but also about their general concept, e. g. quotations from the Holy Scripture and the authors of classical antiquity used in the sermon are repeated in the inscriptions of the funerary décor. A portrait of a nobleman as a spiritual warrior taking the way of virtue and a knight leading an armed struggle for his faith is developed in the sermon. These two elements of the portrait allow us to understand the composition of the décor emblems representing the virtues (useful for the service to God and Homeland). The motifs of noble origin and knighthood are particularly emphasized in occasional architecture. Castrum doloris is designed as an emblem representing a triumphal arch; underneath the arch is a picture of the victory in the Battle of Vienna symbolizing Ogiński’s (hypothetic) participation in the attacks against people of other faiths. The personifications and symbolism of the family is related with Ogiński’s ducal and Ruthenian origin. The sermon is interesting for art historians also in that the function of the paintings is discussed there.
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Architecture of a particular country is one of the most visible manifestations of its cultural heritage. When approaching this subject matter in reference to United States of America, mentioning Frank Lloyd Wright is inevitable, as he is often referred to as “the greatest American architect of all time”. Frank Lloyd Wright’s vision of Broadacre City was a project that consumed the greater part of the architect’s life. The article investigates the technical, structural and ideological aspects of the Broadacre City concept. The main objective of this article is to establish whether Broadacre City was designed in the spirit of the most fundamental American values of freedom and democracy and how those values were manifested in the project itself.
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The article presents issues related to conducting works in historic real estates. The first part shows the existing administrative procedures in the construction process associated with historic buildings. The second part introduces the types of works, historic buildings and grants that took place during construction works in historic buildings in Cracow in recent years. The article aims to discuss these issues.
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By the end of the nineteenth century (and especially during the interwar period), Romanian cities were confronted with an abrupt growth in population, the base of a new social middle class, composed not only by industrial workers, but by public servants as well. The development of public administration – a process that took place especially after the mid nineteenth century – was facing new important challenges after the 1918 unification. The new territories, with an unbalanced ratio between Romanian and foreign urban population, forced the state into taking important actions, in order to provide new jobs for the local Romanian population. This decision led to a constant process of enlarging both local and central public administration structures all over the country, requiring more and more employees over the years. In order to increase the living standard for state workers and to help their employees in different ways, many public institutions started forming special societies. Starting with 1910, many of them chose to take long term actions in providing houses for their employees, in a time when housing crises reached a high point and when public administration started to assume an important role in providing cheap and sanitary houses for those in need. This paper explores how public servants’ societies were founded, their general goals and ways of working. It also reveals their most important accomplishments in Bucharest. This part is divided into three main chapters, following the different ways of intervention: medium and large allotments in the peripheral area of the city (most of them followed by construction activities), large allotments in the suburban area and apartment buildings constructed mainly in the central part of the city, for the middle and upper class. In the end, we intend to connect these actions to wider measures undertaken in order to provide houses for the state workers, developed during the first half of the twentieth century.
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The fourth Romanian Mayor of Târgu-Mureş, from a number of thirteenth that had administrated the town between the two World Wars, has detained two legislatures (1922–1926, 1934–1937), managing the town for a period of almost 7 years. In 1923, among the fourth big urban public problems that were on the agenda of the municipal administrator (mainly the introduction of the natural gas, finishing the enlargement of the electrical plant, provision of the drinking water), an important place was occupied by the project of urban planning and town’s enlargement. The approaches made by Dandea, starting with 1923, for developing a project for urban planning and town enlargement, even before issuing a law on this matter, were regarding only the general framework of a future development of the town. After the familiarization with the town’s realities, the first approach of Emil A. Dandea was to establish, in a certain order of priorities, the locations for: cemeteries, a cattle market, a country market and a weekly one, a corresponding sports arena, a hospital for patients suffering of tuberculosis, a public bath, Orthodox and the Greek-Catholic churches, for a theatre, a working colony with the purpose of developing the town’s gas network, a cinema, a hotel, a surgery sanatorium, etc. A significant preoccupation of the municipal administrator was to solve the crisis of building. After analyzing the examples from abroad, the adequate solution for solving this thing was, in his opinion, to found societies for building cheap houses, to which the municipality could contribute with 55% of the necessary capital. Therefore, the Anonymous Society, “Căminul Familiar”, was founded in Târgu-Mureş. Starting from this reality, the Mayor Emil A. Dandea had in mind to assure new allotments for houses, by preparing the built-up terrains which had remained in the property of the town or by putting together the expropriated properties, to open new streets, to reorganize some built low density area, to assure the utilities of first necessity etc. In 1929, depending on the number of chamber at 100 buildings, the municipality of Târgu-Mureş was on the 4th place at national level, having been outranked only by Bucharest, Timişoara, Constanţa, and having reached a tie with Satu Mare. Out of 7,833 building permits, released between the years 1923–1940, 3,359 (42,9%) were issued during the administration of Dandea, showing his sustained efforts in realizing a healthy building fund, fitted with all the components of urban civilization. The accomplishments of Mayor Emil A. Dandea are especially laudable as they took place in a difficult period of the Romanian economy, mainly the period of recovery after World War I and the Economic Crisis in 1929–1933.Keywords: .
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Focusing on the example of Iași in the 1960s, this article analyses perceptions and attitudes of local actors towards the transformation and management of the built environment, following the decentralization of urban planning activity in the late 1950s. The largest town in Eastern Romania and former capital of late-medieval Moldavia, Iași benefited in this period from substantial funding for industrial development. Unlike the reconstruction policies of the 1950s, which had produced little change in terms of scale, the following decade was characterized by the expansion of the industrial area and the construction of new modernist districts at the periphery. Using as a main source the minutes of the meetings of the local Popular Council, the article focuses on three main aspects: the beautification of the old centre, the new housing districts at the periphery, and the maintenance and distribution of the existing housing stock. The points of view expressed during these meetings by a diversity of local actors (bureaucrats, Party members, specialists, citizens) reveal strategies of contesting and adapting centrally-formulated requirements to the local context, but also the tensions generated by diverse social, economic and political pressures. Of particular interest is the management of the existing housing stock, caught between official demands for conservation, poor management and maintenance, and the inequalities of housing distribution policies.
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The urban planning (urbanism) during the Romanian communist era is relatively little studied, although books, articles, or doctoral dissertations dealing with the architecture of that time are available. Addressing this subject today involves difficulties of subjective and objective nature. From those subjective difficulties, I would mention a definite restraint of the professionals in this field to approach issues that belong to the recent past, still too fresh and sensitive for those who were actively involved in urban planning. One objective difficulty is the remarkable complexity of the changes that took place in those approx. 50 years of communism, as the Romanian urban planning went through rather contradictory successive phases: from modernism between WW1 and WW2, extended towards 1947, passing through the “socialist realism” of the Stalinist period, back to modernism with a “socialist nuance”, and finally, after the mid ‘70s, towards a “generalized systemic urban planning”, stopped in 1989. This chronology is followed by all important towns, either bigger or smaller ones from outside the Carpathian arch, and, to a lesser extent those from Transylvania and western area. Each of them was, on the other hand, subject to specific processes and factors, which produced relatively different results. Buzău town went through these same phases, although in a particular manner, and studying its evolution by gradual reconstruction, makes it possible to figure out the urban reality prior to the ‘60s. If preserved, that reality could have been the foundation of the modern town in its evolution, in a more complex way, better adapted to its true identity. In the recent history of Buzău, in approx. 25 years – between the ‘60s and the ‘80s –, important portions of its historic central area disappeared and were replaced by new urban spaces and architectures. During the vast undertaking of communist systemic urban planning, the transformations were so radical, that today’s town has areas that do not include any references to past realities anymore. All physical remains of the buildings and urban spaces of those times have completely been lost. Only documentary traces (maps, plans, official documents, pictures, drawings, sketches, films) are still available, as well as traces in the collective or individual memory. The present paper is proposing a reconstruction using two parallel information sources: one objective and one subjective, together with a set of plans from the ‘70s and ‘80s, which only partially contain the topography preceding the great destruction. The objective information consists of official documents, old reports, articles, etc.; most of which found at the State Archives in Buzău. These sources were published in a few recent monographs, partially used by the author in the past in other studies. The subjective source of information consists in hundreds of photos taken by the author during the ‘70s and ‘80s in all the urban areas of real historic importance and/or scheduled for demolition. The study goes into details on the following urban areas: Unirii (the town’s central area), Cuza Voda (the town’s oldest “core”), and Bazar; all containing major architectures and houses of an undeniable architectural quality, built between the mid-19th century and mid-20th century, which were destroyed in various proportions.
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Combining various styles, many of them representing the stylistic guidelines of the time, buildings of the eighteenth, nineteenth, ¼ twentieth centuries of Satu Mare town impresses with aesthetic, technical achievement, grandeur and spectacle. The buildings secular or religious, are richly decorated, massive, and stately. Herman Mihály, mayor of Satu Mare town in the late nineteenth century (1895–1902) said as to buildings of a town reflects its status and constitutes the starting in the future development. Churches and palaces in Satu Mare were and are a mark of the town both and the area, not only in terms of their importance in the community, was the medieval town, and especially in terms of architecture. Adding in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries secession style make from buildings of Satu Mare made one of the strengths for which the town has more than fifty properties inscribed on the List of Historical Monuments (2010/2015) , of which more than seven buildings are historical monuments of national value (A). Urban Ensemble “Freedom Square” (SM-II-AA-05220), with all buildings on four sides, edified during the XVIII-th, XIX-th, XX-th centuries, the buildings of national value are recorded in historical monuments in Romania. Around the market are buildings – one hundred - two hundred and fifty old years - in different styles: Classic, Baroque, Gothic and Secession. This complex of buildings the most valuable are: Roman Catholic cathedral in classic style, Building of Art Museum – Vécsey House in Gothic style and Dacia Hotel (Pannónia), secession style from architect Lechner Ödön. Along with them, the classic marks are Reformed Church “with chainsˮ Roman Catholic Bishop's Palace and Fire Tower (ecclesiastical and secular buildings).
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C.F.W. Maetz (1847–1896) was a Transylvanian Saxon architect, who lived and worked during the second half of the 19th century. He played an important role among the Transylvanian Saxon architects because of the width of his intellectual capacity. He distinguished himself as a good organizer, a craftsman, an architect and also a good trader, an innovator with a very distinctive style. He worked in Mediaș, Sibiu, Cluj, Orăștie and Vienna, leaving a legacy of many buildings of great value, amongst which the Museum of Natural Sciences, as part of the renowned complex of the Brukenthal Museum from Sibiu.
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Tympanon portalu północnego ponorbertańskiego kościoła św. Trójcy w Strzelnie został odkryty w 1953 roku i znajduje się in situ. Datowany jest na około 1216 rok. Na uwagę zasługuje zarówno jego forma jak i treść. Wyróżnia go trójlistny kształt i bogactwo środków rzeźbiarskich użytych dla osiągnięcia maksymalnych efektów plastycznych i światłocieniowych. Płaskorzeźba przedstawia Chrystusa w mandorli zasiadającego na łuku tęczy, z gołębicą Ducha Świętego nad głową, depczącego lwa i smoka. Otacza go dwóch aniołów, dwa symbole Ewangelistów i dwóch Apostołów.Dla ikonografii kluczowe jest przedstawienie dwóch antropozoomorficznych symboli Ewangelistów – Marka i Łukasza zamiast czterech, co jest najczęstsze w tego typu przedstawieniach oraz dwóch Apostołów Piotra i Pawła. Ich osoby łączy zależność opisana w II wieku przez chrześcijańskiego pisarza Ireneusza z Lyonu w traktacie Adversus Haereses. Jednocześnie, w oparciu o jego słowa, Ewangeliści Marek i Łukasz symbolizują odpowiednio Królewskość i Kapłaństwo Chrystusa. Czynność deptania smoka i lwa (tradycyjnie poza tymi dwoma przedstawiane są bazyliszek i aspiskus) w których można się domyślać symbolicznego przedstawienia szatana i Antychrysta, wskazuje na władzę Chrystusa nad tymi siłami zła. Ptak interpretowany jako gołębica Ducha Świętego bądź nawiązuje do wezwania kościoła, bądź też wskazuje na stałą obecność Ducha Świętego demonstrującą najwyższy majestat Chrystusa. Elementem uzupełniającym przedstawienie jest wić roślinna wychodząca z ust masek, która obiega archiwoltę tympanonu. Jest to ilustracja popularnego w średniowieczu tematu Psychomachii. W szerszym kontekście kościelno – politycznym przedstawienie może odnosić się do roli zakonu norbertanów we wprowadzaniu reformy Kościoła w Polsce oraz do instytucji papiestwa. W tym czasie papieżem był Innocenty III. Za jego pontyfikatu papiestwo przeżywało apogeum swojego znaczenia. Innocenty III wysunął koncepcję podwójnego wikariatu Chrystusa oraz ideę samego papieża. Papież, jako namiestnik Chrystusa na ziemi miał dzierżyć w swoich rękach zarówno władzę duchową (Christus Sacerdos) jak i świecką (Christus Rex). Tak więc przedstawienie z tympanonu północnego ukazujące majestat Chrystusa zaakcentowany przez umieszczenie przy nim omówionych symboli może być ilustracją tej idei. Nie jest również wykluczone, że portal północny był głównym wejściem do kościoła.
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Das gotische Fresko mit Szenen der Kreuzigung und der Fusswaschung befindet sich in der Mitte des nördlichen Kreuzgangflügels. Einige Jahrhunderte lang blieb es unsichtbar für Zuschauer, denn schon am Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts wurde es wegen des sehr schlechten Zustandes bedeckt mit einem Ölgemälde, das Klosterbrüder zur Dekoration der Kreuzgangwände bestellt hatten. Es wurde am 22. Juli 1881 wiederentdeckt, als die genannte Leinwand zur Restaurierung abgehängt wurde. 1885 beauftragte man den Maler Leopld Weinmayer mit der Restauration des Gemäldes, das schon in einem sehr schlechten Zustand war. Er übermalte und ergänzte es. Diese Arbeit veränderte völlig den Stil des altertümlichen Freskos, entstellte jedoch seine Ikonographie nicht. Die letzte Restauration wurde in den Jahren 1996 - 1998 durchgeführt. Die Schicht der Polichromie aus dem 19. Jahrhundert wurde abgenommen und dem Besucher zeigt sich jetzt die gegenwärtige, originale gotische Komposition.Das Freskogemälde in Pelpin besteht aus zwei Teilen. Im oberen Streifen ist die Kreuzigung Christi, im unteren Streifen die Fusswaschung der Aposteln zu sehen. In der Szene der Kreuzigung gibt es sieben Figuren. Im Zentrum der Komposition befindet sich Christus am Kreuz, an seinen Seiten stehen Maria als Schmerzensmutter und Johannes der Evangelist. Hinter ihnen stehen zwei Propheten, die man als Isaias (der Prophet hinter Maria) und Jeremia (der Prophet hinter Johannes) erkennen kann. Die Komposition vollenden an beiden Seiten zwei hinter den Propheten kniende Zisterzienserbrüder. In der Szene der Fusswaschung gibt es zwölf Aposteln, auf einer Bank sitzend, und im Zentrum Christus, der sich zu den Füssen Peters niederbeugt.Wie die ikonographische Analyse zeigte, sollte das Gemälde durch die Veranschaulichung von Lebensregeln im Orden eine didaktische Funktion erfüllen. Die sichtbaren Motive, die die Polichromie beinhaltet (das Schema mandantum, die Schmerzensmutter als Vermittlerin, die zu Gott führt, und das Bild des Gekreuzigten, dessen schmerzvolles Leiden die Prophetengestalten betonen), lassen folgern, dass Nachdruck bei der Aussage der Komposition auf die Thematik der Gottesliebe und die Demut gelegt wurde. Diese Tugenden bilden auch die Grundlage der theologischen Gedanken des Zisterzienserbrüders Bernhard von Clairvaux. Diese zweiteilige Gemäldeform knüpft an die architektonische Bauform der romanischen und gotischen Tympanonen in Portalen gotischer Kathedralen an. Der Stil des pelpinschen Polichromiemeisters zeigt gewisse Ähnlichkeiten der Monumental- Miniatur- und Tafelmalerei aus dem 14. Jahrhundert, bleibt jedoch in seiner Art einzigartig.Die beste stilistische Analogie findet man in der Nikolaikirche in Stralsund in Norddeutschland. Dort befindet sich an der Ostwand der Südkapelle das Freskogemälde, datiert ca. 1335, das den Gekreuzigten mit Gestalten der Heiligen zeigt. Mehrere Parallelen zwischen diesen Werken suggerieren, dass der Schöpfer aus Pelpin die norddeutsche Kunst kannte und sie als Vorbild nahm. Nach der Analyse des Freskogemäldes aus Pelpin kann man sein Entstehungsdatum auf Jahre zwischen 1360-1380 festsetzen und es zur Strömung der linearen Gotik zählen, die fast im ganzen Europa nördlich der Alpen verbreitet war.
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In 1960, during architectural study conducted in the Długosz Home in Wiślica fragments of Gothic polychrome were discovered. The whole of it was uncovered in 1999-2004. On the basis of analysis of stratigraphy of layers of particular sections of the walls it was determined that the polychrome was painted at the same time as the building, that is after 1460.The frescos were founded by Jan Długosz. This is proven by a similarity of the picture of the founder from the Wiślica fresco and his portrait on the plaque in Dom Psałterzystów(Psalterists’ Home), also founded by him, and by the co at of arms Wieniawa placed on the ceiling of a room in Wiślica. The Wiślica polychrome is probably a work by a Małopolska workshop or master; however, comparing its style to wall polychromes in the Małopolska area does not allow ascribing the painting to one of their authors. On the basis of the style it should be dated to the years between 1460’s and early 1480’s, when in wall painting the tendency can be seen to build the form with a strong contour and a great role is still played by flat color patches.The greatest part of the polychrome is placed on the south wall. The composition consists of two scenes between which, over the entrance, the Martyred Christ is depicted. On his right two people are shown who are turned towards Christ: a kneeling canon with his hands in the gesture of prayer, and a saint with a crucifix in her hand, who is standing behind the canon. Over the man there is a ribbon with the Latin inscription m[iser]ere mei deus nostrum. The scene on the left presents five people: three soldiers, a man and a woman standing on a platform (a balcony or a tribune) that is suggested by a hanging cloth.Christ is p re sented in the iconographie type that is usually defin ed as Imago Pietatis, Misericordia Domini, Christ in the Well, and recently - Martyred Christ. The saint standing behind Długosz and holding a crucifix in her hand might be an image of St Helen whose cult was spread owing to Crusades and to the relics of the Wood of the Holy Cross famous for the graces. However, it may also be St Kinga whose life Długosz described. The representation on the right side of Christ is of a different character from the one on the opposite side; it is ‘‘taken ou t” of history. The closest analogies may be seen in the scenes of Christ Before Pilate, and Flagellation. The figures on the Wiślica fresco that have the form of portraits can be identified with the persons of Pilate and his wife Procula. What is unusual is the attitude the figures shown here - in a defined time and space - take towards the image of the Martyred Christ, who (by the act of incorporation and redemption completed in time) is above time.The composition of the south wall does not have analogy. The arrangement of the scenes shown here, their contents, scale and their painting stylistics make one recognize this part of the polychrome as the most important in the whole program: the Martyred Christ is standing in the sepulcher - the sign of Resurrection, victory over death. He carries signs of his Passion, in which he offered himself as a sacrifice for man - for the love of him. His gesture - one of presentation - is a gesture of presentation of love, of his devotion to man. And presentation assumes existence of the recipient, it requires his existence. An actual man, Jan Długosz, a canon, Christ’s disciple, found a recipient in himself. He is adoring Christ, pays homage to him, and completely gives him self up to him. The saint standing behind Długosz does not only play the role of one who intercedes for him; she is saint through he r faith in the cross. Together with Długosz she intercedes for the whole Church that received a promise to be redeemed exactly through the cross.Redemption was completed in history - in an actual time and place. The scene on the right refers just to history. It is by Pilate ’s consent that Jesus is sentenced, despite his wife P ro c u la ’s warnings. He is sentenced to his Passion, to which the rod and whip refer; they are shown on C h rist’s both sides, at the same time joining the two scenes into one whole; two realities into one message. On the borderline between them a soldier orders silence that is silence in the face of the Mystery of Redemption. Like Długosz, when he prays, man touches the sacred; the mystery ordering silence - completed and being completed (in the sacrament). The scene “ taken out of history” is a proof of completion of the Mystery.
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In der katholischen Kirche gibt es eine wechselvolle Geschichte der Aufbewahrung der konsekrierte Hostie. In der gotischen Zeit hat man für diesen Zweck unterschiedliche Gefässe, wie auch unterschiedliche Orte im Bereich des kirchlichen Raumes verwendet. Die Aufbewahrung des Allenheiligsten ausserhalb des Altars, in Sakramentsnischen oder Sakramentshäuschen, war damals das Üblichste. In dem vorliegenden Artikel wird einer der Aspekte der reichen Untersuchungsproblematik bezüglich solche Gehäuse, das heisst ihre Terminologie in der polnischen Fachliteratur, besprochen. Liturgen und Kunsthistoriker des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts haben vor allem vier Begriffe: „cyborium„, „tabernakulum„, „sakrarium„ und „sakramentarium„ verwendet. Was für einen Ursprung, Bedeutung und Entwicklung diese Termine haben und ob ihre Verwendung bezüglich der Bezeichnung der Aufbewahrungsorte des Allenheiligsten ausserhalb des Altars adäquat ist, wird in diesem Text besprochen. Die Benennung ihrer unterschiedlichen Typen wurde ebenfalls diskutiert.
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In der Pfarrkirche St. Maria in Banská Bystrica in der Slowakei befindet sich ein Bronzetaufbecken in Kelchform, das – laut Inschrift auf dem nodus – 1475 von Jodocus angefertigt wurde. An der Schale sind Apostelfiguren und in dreifacher Wiederholung das Wappenschild des Veit Müllenstein angebracht. Die Schale umlaufen Inschriften, die an das Sakrametn der Taufe anknüpfen.Das Taufbecken gehört zu den Meisterwerken der Gießereikunst. Auffallend ist die Ähnlichkeit des Taufbeckens mit zeitgleicher Goldschmiedekunst. Dagegen unterscheidet es sich deutlich von den Bronzetaufbecken, die in der nahe gelegenen, für ihre Gießereikunst berühmten Zips, hergestellt wurden. Dies mag der Grund sein, weshalb die Forschung, die weder eine Analogie zwischen der Zipser Gießereikunst und dem Taufbecken in Banská Bystrica fand noch einen Zusammenhang zwischen dem Namen Jodok und jener Werkstatt herstellen konnte und somit auf der falschen Spur war, über diesen Forschungsgegenstand mit Stillschweigen hinweggingen oder ihn nur gelegentlich erwähnte.Jodok (Jodocus, Jost) Tauchen wirkte in der 2. Hälfte des 15. Jahrhunderts in Breslau. Er war Bildhauer, Baumeister und Gießer. Von diesem zniversalen Künstler ist bis heute in Breslau nur ein einziges signiertes Werk erhalten: Das Tabernakel der Elisabethenkirche.Von Jodok als Architekt erfahren wir aus Quellen, die den Bau der Nordkapellen der Marienkirche auf dem Sande in den Jahren 1466-1469 betraffen. Mit Jodok verbindet man verschiedene Bildwerke in der Kakpelle und im Nordschiff des Refektoriums im Rathaus, ebenso das Taufbecken in der Marienkirche auf dem Sande.Jodoks handwerkliches Können als Gießer mußte bereits in den sechziger Jahren des 15. Jahrhunderts bekannt gewesen sein, da der Erzbischof von Gnesen, Johannes Vi,. bei ihm 1462 eine Grabtafel bestellte.Das Bronzetaufbecken von der Elisabethenkirche in Breslau, das heute im Warschauer Nationalmuseum aufbewahrt wird, ist ebenfalls Jodoks Werk. Vermutlich wurde es gegen das Lebensende des Meisters angefertigt. Es kann sein, daß Jodok mit diesem Werk die breite palette seiner künstlerischen Fähigkeiten zeigen wollte. Jedenfalls macht es einen überladenen Eindruck.1495 verschwindet der Name Jodok spurlos aus den Stadtbüchern von Breslau.Das Taufbecken in Banská Bystrica ist das einzige Werk des Künstlers, welches das Entstehungsjahr wie den namen des Meisters trägt. Es stellt sich die Frage, wie es nach Banská Bystrica gelangte. Möglich ist, daß die Verbindungen zu Johannes Turzon bestanden, der in Schlesien und in Ungarn, bekannt war – er hat Kupferbergwerke in Banská Bystrica und Kremnica gegründet –, und auf die Bestellung des Taufbeckens aus dem entlegenen Ort einen Einfluß hatten.Die Forschung zu Jodok scheint jedenfalls noch nicht abgeschlossen zu sein.
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The subject of the article “Wooden sculptures of lions in Polish medieval art” are lying lions grouped in bigger complexes of sculptures. Twenty-nine of them are assembled in the circle of the Cistercian order - in Cistercian and post-Cistercian churches and monasteries in the whole area of Poland, that is in Koprzywnica, Sulejów, Szczyrzyca, Kraków-Mogiła, and Ląd upon Warta. The remaining twenty-four sculptures of lions are found in parish churches or in other places that are not connected with the Cistercian order in Poland, i.e. in Dobre Miasto, Leżajsk, Borek Wielkopolski and Koźmin Wielkopolski.The Middle Ages are the time when the lions are believed to have been sculptured, and the researchers usually point to the 13-16th centuries. In some cases (Ląd upon Warta, Borek Wielkopolski, Koźmin Wielkopolski) the lions are dated to a later period, namely to the 17-18th centuries, and they are pointed to as a continuation of the medieval type of the “bearing lion” .In their form the sculptures are a continuation of the stone and bronze works of European medieval sepulchral art. The functional form of the bodies of the lions that suggests bearing weights, as well as the movable character of the wooden figures lead one to suppose that they were part of the catafalque construction for bearing the coffin during funeral celebrations. Lions with cushions on their backs in the post-Cistercian churches in Sulejów and Koprzywnica could be used as seats for holding a vigil over the dead, which was the usual practice during funeral services.In the context of sepulchral art the lion expresses the eschatological truth, that is defeating death by Christ and Ressurection. It is a sign of faith and of hope for an eternal life.
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The present buildings on the castle hill were erected mostly at the beginning of the 19th century. The 13th century donjon and the Trinity Chapel the building of which is associated with Casimirus the Great belong to the oldest ones, connected with the functions of the castellan’s town. The castle, built by Casimirus, and developed as a Renaissance residence in the times of Sigismund the Old and modernized in the subsequent centuries, has very few iconographie records. We can get some idea of what it looked like in the Piast times on the basis o f the preserved foundations that have only partially been excavated. We can make guesses about the distribution of buildings on the castle hill also basing on the mural that has recently been discovered on a wall in the Lubomelskis’ house in the Lublin Market Square. The Renaissance silhouette of the castle is shown in the co lo red copperplate from the 6th book of “Civitates orbis terrarum ” published in Cologne in 1618. More detailed information about the arrangement of the castle buildings, their connections and functions, and partly also about their furnishing comes from written sources. The main one is the inventory of the Lublin starosty including also the inventory of the castle from 1618. The successive changes of the function and re la tiv e ly small re constructions are described in the records of two inspections of the starosty of 1602 and 1616. Owing to these sources it is possible to learn about the look of the castle in the period of its splendor. From analysis of these sources it appears that foreigners and other visitors were impressed not only with the position of the castle but also with its buildings and furnishing. Since the wars of the middle of the 17th century completely destroyed the castle our image of its splendor is formed only on the basis of the sources.
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