A mohácsi csata (1526)

Author(s): Lajos Négyesi / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 03/2019

On 29 August 1526, in the battle that took place south from Mohács, Suleiman I triumphed over the armies of the Hungarian Kingdom, which also lost its king, as Louis II drowned in the flooded Csele stream while trying to escape. Posterity associates the loss of the Hungarian kingdom with this tragic event, although it would probably still have taken place due to the political processes. Nevertheless, many historians regard this battle as a fateful clash that the Hungarian army had no chance of winning due to their lack of expertise and preparation. The careful analysis of the contemporary sources reveals that the fight was not already lost from the beginning, but due to the lack of military preparedness.

A nagybányai önkormányzati testület szerkezete a 16–18. században

Author(s): Kálmán Zsolt Süto / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 1/2018

The aim of the study is to present the structure of the local government of Baia Mare. During the 16th–18th centuries the free royal mining town of Baia Mare was led by an inner and an outer council. The outer council was made up of sixty members. They elected the judge and the twelve jurors of the inner council. The first and the second juror were called consul jurors, they acted as the judge’s substitutes. From the end of the 17th century the central power was trying to narrow the self-government of the town.

A nonadorantizmus két kelet-közép-európai módozatáról a 16. században (Martin Seidel és Szymon Budny)

Author(s): Mihály Balázs / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 2-3/2017

The international literary history focusing on the antecedents of the enlightenment era has a particular interest in nonadorantism, the most radical branch of antitrinitarianism. This article focuses on research about Martin Seidel (?–?, 16–17th century) and Szymon Budny (1533–1593). In Seidel’s case new documents have been discovered in the archives which reveal new relations and connections in his work life which make it possible to date the origins of nonadorantism to a significantly earlier time. The article sums up the English, German, Spanish, Polish and Italian papers, and while doing so, Budny and Seidel are repositioned on the Eastern-Central European religious map. The article sketches the relations between the works of Budny and Seidel, as well as those of Francis David (Dávid Ferenc) (1510?–1579), Jacobus Palaeologus (1520?–1585) and Matthias Vehe-Glirius (1545?–1590).

A Pécsi Disputa útja nyugatról keletre. Erdélyi–baranyai unitárius érintkezések a 17. században.

Author(s): Dávid Szigeti Molnár / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 3/2019

This article focuses on Unitarian relationships between Transylvania and Baranya in the 17th century. It presents relevant new data, for example, it comes to light that at the synod of Kolozsvár in 1609, the Unitarian bishop Máté Toroczkai (1553–1616) delegated four ministers to Baranya. Maybe this is related to the passage of exemplars of the Disputation of Pécs from west to east, from Baranya, the western periphery of the Unitarian Church to its eastern periphery (where the Sabbatarians lived). Th e article interprets a 1632 letter from Valentinus Radecius (cca 1550–1632) to the ministers of Baranya together with other historical documents, and concludes that Baranya had more freedom in the 17th century than Transylvania. The ministers in Baranya were not bound by Transylvanian dogma and the indifference of Transylvanian Unitarians contributed to the freedom experienced there.

A procancellariusi tisztség a Báthoryak korában (1571–1602)

Author(s): Tamás Fejér / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 1/2016

The aim of this paper is to present the office of procancellarius of the Transylvanian princely chancellery during the Báthory era on the basis of archival sources. This new office appeared at the end of the year 1575, and first was held by Márton Berzeviczy, previously princely councilor and secretary of the chancellery. Then it was taken over by Ferenc Sulyok, formerly protonotarius, respectively by the cubicularius Miklós Bogáthi. Since this solution was used to coordinate the activity of the chancellery only when the office of chancellor was vacant, the office did not become a permanent one. Usually the duties of procancellarius were similar to those of the chancellor’s. Based on the examined charters and other sources my research revealed that they fulfilled tasks concerning diplomatic correspondence, countersigning documents, verification of princely mandates, opening letters of report, and supervising the libri regii.

A small region in Transdanubia under Ottoman rule: Bonyhád and its surroundings in the 16th century

Author(s): Géza Dávid / Language(s): English / Issue: 1-2/2008

The Ottomans occupied Bonyhád and its surroundings probably during the imperial campaign of 1543. The first survey of the region was made in 1546, followed by three additional ones during the 16th century (1552, 1570 and 1579). The territory under investigation first belonged to the sancak of Mohács, later to that of Pécs. Nearly all studied settlements could be found in all four defters . Thus some 20 places were categorised according to various criteria. It turned out that as far as population, the amount of taxes paid and wine-production are concerned, the market town ( oppidum ) Nádasd was the most significant. Though only a village at the time, Bonyhád also ranked among the first in several respects. The examination of settlements with mills, fairs and markets and of the number of priests yielded new results, modifying in part our knowledge of the Middle Ages.

A szászok és a fejedelmi tábla a 16. században

Author(s): Zsolt Bogdándi / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 1/2019

This study analyzes the relationship between the Transylvanian central court of law, the so-called Royal/Voivodal/ Princely Table (Tabula) and the privileged Saxon community of Transylvania in light of the archival sources. The Princely Table adjudicated the cases appealed from the Universitas Saxonum, which resided in Szeben (Sibiu, Hermannstadt). The Saxons did not have their own court session, their cases were determined by the Table during the congregations of the Transylvanian estates, held on different locations. From the Princely Table their actions could be transmitted to the court of personal presence (personalis presentia). Cases between Saxons were appealed rarely to the Table, in most of the cases one of the litigants came from the nobility of the neighbouring counties or from the Székely community.

A székelyudvarhelyi Jézus-kápolna

Author(s): András Sófalvi / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: VIII/2013

The Jesus Chapel is located at the south entrance of the town Odorheiu Secuiesc. This ecclesiastical building belongs to the group of four-lobe chapels with analogies in the west and north of the Carpatian-basin and Transylvania. Traditional belief dated the building of the Jesus Chapel to the 13th century. The chapel was mentioned in the written sources for the first time in 1602. There are no carved stone elements in its structure. The special technical components of its altar date from the end of the 17th century – beginning of the 18th century. The central picture of the altar, representing Jesus with His bleeding heart and the lamb, are strongly connected with the Jesuit order which appeared in Odorhei at the end of the 16th century. The painted wood ceiling was made in 1677, originally the chapel was probably vaulted. The archaeological researches made in 1973 and 2011 have also given postmedieval dating. Stratigraphical data proved the building of the chapel post quem the middle of the 15th century. The stone and brick crypts discovered in the centre of the building are directly linked to the foundation of the chapel, which was probably a miraculous healing. Although it has been used later as a burial chapel, there are no written documents concerning the founder’s person or their family. The chapels in Gheorgheni (Szent Anna/Saint Anne Chapel) and Sânzieni (Szent István/Saint Stephen Chapel) are in Szeklerland the closest architectural analogies of the Jesus Chapel. Their newest research dated them to the 17th century and marked them as being votive or private chapels.

A szigeti Bartos család: társadalmi felemelkedés az erdélyi fejedelmi hivatalnokság alsó rétegében a 16–17. század fordulóján

Author(s): László Glück / Language(s): Hungarian / Publication Year: 0

The service of the king played a particular role in upward social mobility in premodern Hungary, as the monarchs – thanks to the specific sovereign rights – had opportunities not comparable with that of the other members of society to reward subjects dear to them. Many commoners also managed to acquire nobility or seigneurial rights in the 15th and 16th centuries, thanks to their erudition (literacy and proficiency in Latin) which made it possible for them to be employed in the monarchic administration. The government of the Principality of Transylvania, a new state that emerged in the eastern part of Hungary in the mid-16th century, played a similar role. The present study gives the history of a family as an example of this.The father lived in Sziget, a small town in the north-eastern region of Hungary, and his profession possibly was that of a saddler. His sons were given an education. Péter started working at the Princely Treasury as an auditor (rationista), György supposedly served in the Princely Chancellery as a scribe, and István had been the private secretary to lords, and then worked as a scribe of the Princely Chancellery. The father already had been ennobled by a charter (this was usual among craftsmen from the end of the 16th century), and his sons were granted exemption for their plots in Sziget by the Prince. After the untimely death of the two elderly brothers, only István remained alive; he was awarded with estate donations as well by the Prince, and then entered into a marriage with a noblewoman from a well-to-do seigneurial family, inheriting landed properties by his marriage as well. After all, he used the cash from his father’s heritage or his court service to purchase the landed properties from different landlords being in difficulties. He attached great importance to good farming on the acquired landed properties. Old seigneurial families immediately accepted him, the homo novus, as one of them: this is clearly shown by the marriages of István and his children.

A Szilágyság és a Wesselényi család (14–17. század)

Author(s): / Language(s): Hungarian / Publication Year: 2012

This volume contains the edited texts of the papers presented at the conference "Sălaj (Szilágy) Region and the Wesselényi Family in the 14–17th centuries" held between 7 and 8 September 2012 in Cluj (Kolozsvár). The essays deal with the estate system and the political and economic history of the medieval Sălaj (Szilágy) region (Middle Solnoc/Szolnok and Crasna/Kraszna counties), as well as with the history of the Wesselényi family archives and the early modern history of the Wesselényi family.

A sződi uradalom 1517/1518. évi számadásjegyzéke (Adatok a Gersei Pető család dél-alföldi birtoklásáról)

Author(s): Elek Szaszkó / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 04/2017

As medieval sources of the southern Great Hungarian Plain are scarce and limited, every little crumbs of information should be cherished by the researcher. This is especially true, when one stumbles upon an especially rare type of medieval source related to the region, which, in our case, is the registry of the revenues and expenses of the Sződi manor in Arad County obtained by Gersei Pető János and György from 1506/07. The luckily survived document from 1517/18, according to which the castellan of the manor was able to record 335 forints of revenues, provides a great insight into the nature of the incomes and the forms of revenue utilizations ranging from Pető János and his family’s personal expenses, through the costs of running the manor, the cookhouse, the salary of the retinue and other military expenses to the purchases of various types of simple clothes. The analysis of the registry is preceded by the summary of how the Gerseis gained a foothold in the region which intends to highlight the steps and the circumstances of the acquisition of the possessions known as the former Pósafi estates. Also, while investigating the actual size of the Sződi manor and the southern assets, the study attempts to examine the Gerseis’ relationship with their lay and clerical, prestigious and less significant local neighbors as well.

A Taste of Diplomacy: Food Gifts for the Muscovite Embassy in Venice (1582)

Author(s): Laura Mesotten / Language(s): English / Issue: 1/2017

A vital factor governing early modern diplomatic relations was the practice of hospitality. To assure that the embassy began amicably, ambassadors had to be received with generosity. The nature and extent of diplomatic hospitality differed according to the host state, but it often included the offer of housing and victuals. This critical edition of a primary source aims to shed new light on the characteristics of diplomatic hospitality by carefully examining a list of expenses drafted by the Venetian office of the Rason Vecchie. This archival document provides a detailed account of all the food that was supplied to host a Muscovite delegation that visited Venice in 1582. In the first place, the article unravels the qualities and dynamics of Venetian food gifts by contextualising and comparing the source with additional Venetian records. Furthermore, it argues that the type of foodstuffs offered, the amount of money spent on them, and the splendour of festive banquets all communicated strong symbolic and political messages. By focusing the analysis on lists of expenses, the relevance of these documents for the study of diplomatic practices is illustrated. Overviews of financial transactions might seem static and dry accounts at first sight, however, when analysed closely, they reveal a great deal about the day-to-day operation of early modern diplomacy.

A Territory of Grace: Lampedusa during Early Modern Times

Author(s): Simon Mercieca,Joseph Muscat / Language(s): English / Issue: 2/2013

A török béke kérdése a Dózsa-féle parasztháború idején

Author(s): Sándor Papp / Language(s): Turkish,Hungarian / Issue: III/2016

The essay tries to highlight the circumstances that undermined the successful signing of a peace treaty between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in 1514. It examines the system of the relationships for both sides. The Kingdom of Hungary wanted to maintain the diplomatic practice that had developed previously, in which a peace treaty signed with the Sultan would include other Christian European states as well, such as Venice, Ragusa, Moldova, Wallachia and Poland, as well as in this case the Holy Roman Emperor. On the other hand Sultan Selim I wanted each Christian state to petition him separately for the peace. For Venice it was of crucial importance that the Holy Roman Emperor would not sign a peace treaty with the Sultan, because that would have precluded Selim I from providing mercenaries for Venice in exchange for money in their fight against the Holy Roman Empire. After the Ottoman Sultan’s successful negotiations with two of Hungary’s neighbors, in October 1513 the Peace of Venice was signed, and between the 16th and 27th of May the treaty was ratified by the Polish ambassador in the Anatolian town of Akşehir. On the other hand the Sultan refused to sign the treaty with the Hungarians, and imprisoned the Hungarian legation in Konya. Due to the long distance, the Hungarian leaders did not found out, but felt that the Ottoman Empire had developed peaceful relations with their neighbors, while the negotiations with them had become prolonged. As a result, the voivode of Transylvania, János Szapolyai ( John Zápolya) crossed the Lower Danube between May 12th and June 3rd 1514 and broke into the Bulgarian territories, but, because under the leading of György Dózsa the peasants gathered for the anti-Ottoman crusade turned against the nobility, the campaign ended quickly and Szapolyai had to withdrew his forces. Based on the circumstances presented, the study concludes that Selim I was not afraid of the Kingdom of Hungary, which was left on its own, and despite of the possibility of an eventual Hungarian assault, he attacked Iran and defeated the Persian Shah Ismail. While the peasant uprising of Dózsa had stopped the attack of the Hungarian armies against the Turks in 1514, Szapolyai took advantage of the Sultan’s absence and attacked again in the spring of 1515, besieging the Turkish fortress of Avala (Havale/Zsarnó) across Belgrade. From the report of Süleyman (later Sultan Süleyman I), the heir to the throne, who was guarding the western frontier, we know the precise chronological order of the Hungarian attack and the story of its successful Turkish relief. The two Turkish documents, both in their original language and in Hungarian translation, are included in the appendices of the study.

A Turkic clan in Mughal India: The Qaqshals in Akbar’s service

Author(s): Benedek Péri / Language(s): English / Issue: 4/2007

After the establishment of the Mughal Empire, in Hindustan “guest workers” of Turkic origin started to move to India. They came from various places and represented all walks of life: Uzbegs from Transoxania, Afshars, Baharlus, Bayats from Iran, people from the various Turkic tribes of Khurasan. The Qaqshals, members of a clan of Turkic (Turkmen) origin who played an important role in early Mughal conquests came somewhere from the central parts of modern Afghanistan. They joined the retinue of Humâyûn and Bayrâm Khan in Kabul when the emperor set off to reconquest his realm and fought in almost all important campaigns of Akbar. Though they rebelled in the 1580s those members who repented were eventually pardoned. The present article tries to explore the origins and ethnic background of the Qaqshal clan and trace down the career of the clan’s most illustrious members in contemporary sources.

A wittenbergi egyetem a 16. század első évtizedeiben

Author(s): Gábor Ittzés / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 03/2014

The study surveys the first decades in the history of the University of Wittenberg. It examines the processes whereby a provincial, modestly conservative late medieval college developed into the flagship of German higher education and a leading university by European standards. The analysis approaches the institutional changes primarily on a structural level, reconstructing the process of transformation through a series of microanalyses made possible by the available sources. The University of Wittenberg was one of the most important scenes of the German Reformation in the 16th century, yet the institution did not owe its existence to the Reformation. Its foundation predates the start of the reform movement by some fifteen years. The university’s primary task was to provide the Electorate of Saxony with an expert bureaucracy. What emerges from the early sources is a picture of an institution whose intellectual outlook was determined by moderate Scotism. Key faculty positions were filled by professors with ecclesiastical benefices, i.e. canons, friars and monks. Although Humanism was present at Wittenberg from the outset, its role long remained subordinate to that of Scholasticism. Humanism had a limited presence in the course offerings, and remained virtually absent from the examination requirements. The reform of the university unfolded between 1518 and c.1526 in three phases. First, the Elector established seven new Humanist chairs at his own expense. In the wake of the Reformation, interest in the traditional lectures declined while student enrollment increased. Thus, in the second phase of the reform, in the early 1520s, both course offerings and university finances had to be profoundly reorganized. Traditional – Scholastic – courses were mostly removed from the curriculum. Consequently, however, degree requirements became impossible to meet, and by 1523 the old educational system had practically collapsed. In the third phase of reforms, between 1523 and 1526, the whole order of study was renewed in terms of both methodology and requirements under the direction of Melanchthon. Whereas previously Wittenberg merely followed the example of more prestigious universities or responded to changes within its own ranks, with the third wave of reforms it set the course for a transformation in the spirit of the Reformation not only for its own citizens but also for the entire system of German higher education. Although the next decade brought about further changes, in the light of the previous transformations these must be seen as minor corrections or the consolidation of the reforms. The Fundationsurkunde issued by the Elector in 1536 secured previous achievement and created the framework needed for a successful continuation of the university. Through an examination of the curriculum and the network of professorial chairs, the study analyses institutional structures, explores the mentality and educational program renewed under the influence of Humansim and Reformation, and also reconstructs the changing system of the university’s financing. It considers the role of the Electoral court, reflects on the teaching personnel, and discusses, in addition to the Faculty of Arts, which offered basic instruction, the transformation of the higher Faculties of Theology, Law and Medicine.

Abraomas Kulvietis Liuveno universitete

Author(s): Dainora Pociute / Language(s): Lithuanian / Issue: 09/2007

The article presents new facts about the studies of the pioneer of Lithuanian Reformation Abrahamus Culvensis (Abraomas Kulvietis Ginvilonis, Abrahamus Culvensis Gynvilonis, about 1510–1545) at the University of Leuven and analyses the cultural ambience of the university at the period. Although the early reconstructions of the activity of Culvensis were written in the 16th century, there still remained many unconfirmed facts about Culvensis’s studies in Western universities. The information about Culvensis’s studies at the University of Leuven presented in the Oratio funebris (1547) by Iohannes Hoppius was challenged by the 20th century researcher Vaclovas Biržiška. Culvensis’s studies at Leuven were confirmed by the record book of the University of Leuven preserved in the Belgium National Archive in Leuven. Culvensis was inscribed as Abraham Lithfanus, matriculated in April of 1533 in the University of Leuven. Although the record book does not elaborate on the faculty, other secondary sources prove he had studied in the famous Collegium Trilingue Lovaniense. Later Culvensis was known as an expert in classical languages (homo trium linguarum) and had been invited to hold the position of professor of classical languages in the University of Königsberg.

ABRAOMO KULVIEČIO IR STANISLOVO RAPOLIONIO BIOGRAMOS XVI MAGDEBURGO CENTURIJOJE

Author(s): Jolanta Gelumbeckaite / Language(s): Lithuanian / Issue: 19/2017

1. Matas FlacijusIlyrasir Magdeburgo centurijos . Hercogo Augusto biblioteka Wolfenbüttelyje (vok. Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel, toliau – HAB ) garsėja ne tik didžiausia XVI ir XVII a. vokiškai kalbančiuose kraštuose išspausdintų knygų kolekcija, bet ir gausiais šių amžių rankraščių rinkiniais. Braunschweigo- Lüneburgo hercogas Henrikas Julijus (vok. Heinrich Julius, 1564–1613) 1597 m. į savo biblioteką įtraukė liuteronų teologo ir protestantiškosios Bažnyčios istoriografijos pradininko Mato Flacijaus Ilyro (lot. Matthias Flacius Illyricus, lotynizuota kroatiškoje Istrijos pusiasalio dalyje gimusio Matija’o Vlačićo vardo forma, 1520–1575) rankraštinį ir spausdintą palikimą – nuo Škotijos iki Konstantinopolio surinktus rankraščius bei spaudinius, kuriuos Flacijus sukaupė savo rengiamai Bažnyčios istorijai.1556 m. Bazelyje, Johanno Oporino spaustuvėje, Flacijus išleido ikireformacinės pontifikatą kritikuojančios literatūros rinkinį Catalogus testium veritatis, qui ante nostram aetatem reclamarunt Papae, kuriame pateikė Bažnyčios istorijos rašymo koncepciją. 1559 m.

Academia ca for științific suprem: originile sale în lumina modelului oferit de Italia secolelor XV-XVII

Author(s): Veronica Turcus / Language(s): Romanian / Issue: 56/2017

The Italian Peninsula, through its well developed and institutionally highly organized cities, had offered a shining example for the setting up and supporting the academy, as a space for literary, philosophical, historical and scientifically debate. Their large number, most often in the same city, indicated the enhanced interest of the urban patriciate for literature, art and science, becoming a model for other European territories and societies of the Modern Era. The study systematically shows the efforts to create and preserve the academies in the Italian Peninsula, providing informative and historical documentary material on them. The entire reconstruction and debate intend to bring, by highlighting the evolution in time, notable contributions to the knowledge of a prestigious institution toward which were targeted the efforts of the society’s elite in the early Modern Era.

Acta Jakšićiana. Documents Regarding the Jakšić of Nădlac Family in Romanian Archives

Author(s): Adrian Magina / Language(s): English / Issue: 6/2018

The nobles of the Jakšić family were among the most representative members of the Serbian elite from late medieval Hungary. The Jakšić brothers took refuge in Hungary and settled near the Mureș River in Nădlac (Csanád County). Later, King Matthias donated to them various estates in several counties of his realm, including Transylvania. Although Transylvanian archives contain a substantial amount of data on the family, this has not been thoroughly researched. Documents presented in this study have not been previously published, except for the one from April 1559. They are found in the archives in Sibiu, Cluj and Oradea and they chronologically cover the period of the 16th century, containing information on both branches of the Jakšić family. Documents from the Romanian archives do not fundamentally change the established view on this family, but they supplement our knowledge and cast light upon some controversial or less known aspects of the history of the noble Jakšićs in medieval and early modern times.