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The monogram from Trapezitsa remains a single find from the hitherto prevailing researches onmetropolitan Tarnovo and its surrounding area. It was found in the site between church №14 and the south fortification of Trapezitsa. The monogram unfolds vertically around the letter “Т” [T]. On the right side of the vertical line of the letter “Т” [T] is written the letter “П” [P]. The remaining letters (“Д” [D], “Ч” [ТСН] and “Л” [L], as the last two are semantically related to the meaning of the letter “П” [P]), as appears from their position and size, bring additional meaning of the monogram. The graphic and proportions in the upper part of the newly discovered monogram are identical to the underglaze monogram of The Holy Theodosius of Tarnovo from the Kilifarevo monastery. Thus, most likely, the name of the person from the monogram of Trapezitsa is also Theodosius. In the context of the phenomena of underglaze monograms itself, it is most permitable to say that the monogram is connected to some of the patriarchs of Tarnovo who ruled over the patriarchy during the same period to which the underglaze monograms in general are dated back. These are two patriarchs – Theodosius I, who ruled until 1337 and Theodosius II, declared for a head of the church in the year of 1348. Up until now an underglaze monogram, related to patriarch Theodosius of Tarnovo, had not been found. The monograms, connected to patriarch Theodosius II, are quite similar to his signature in some written records – Gospel, transcribed by the priest Tetokii Psilitsa in 1348 and the record of the last sheet of the pandects of Nikon Chernogorski. The writing differs from that of the monogram from Trapezitsa. The writing of the title “patriarch” in some cases is done with the letters “П” [P] and “Х” [H], as the second letter is ad scriptum. And in other cases – the letter “A” [A] is added to the ligature. There are separate records in which the letter “П” [P] appears independently. Thus, probably, the newly discovered underglaze monogram in the south-east sector of Trapezitsa could be connected to patriarch Theodosius I or it could show an alternative way of writing the name of Theodosius II that differs from his official signature and from the group of his underglaze monograms that are so far known to us. The remaining letters “Ч” [ТСН] and “Л” [L] in the monogram, by the way of construction of the monogram itself, most likely serve an additional semantic function, not to the upper part of the monogram but more to the letter “П” [P] and its meaning in it.
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The paper refers to the Bulgarian-Cuman relations during the reign of tsar Boril. According to many researchers, the deteriorated Bulgarian-Cuman relations resulted from the Bulgarian-Hungarian and Bulgarian-Latin alliance after 1214. For the most part, these conclusions sound logical, but at the same time a question related to the limited involvement of Cumans in Boril’s campaigns after 1211 arises. Contrary to researchers who focus on the South and the Bulgarian-Latin conflict, the author seeks a solution to the problem by analysing events to the North, reaching the lands of the Burzenland region in Eastern Transylvania. He analyses the Teutonic-Cuman conflict of 1211–1222, and the success of the Teutons in Cumania after 1215. Finally, the author concludes that the dramatic change in the Bulgarian- Cuman relations could be explained by a new source of military and political influence that emerged in the second decade of the 13th century – The Teutonic Order.
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The portrait of a young Bulgarian Boyar, called Areta, who was presumably a relative of a caesar or sebastokrator, was painted in St. Nicholas Church of Stanichene village in 1331–1332. This article aims at analyzing and reconstructing her beautifully intricate clothing. The history of some of its elements, such as the head-adornment, is difficult to trace. The origin of others may be determined with more certainty; for example, the pattern of one of her shirts is of Byzantine origin and the hanging sleeves of her upper dress come from a tradition dating back to the First Bulgarian Empire. The combination of its three different sleeves can be found only in two more pictorial sources, both from the former territories of Bulgaria and Serbia. Therefore, it is presumed that her costume reflects a local Balkan fashion which emerged during the Second Bulgarian Empire.
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The article reveals the peculiarities of the development of the cities of Northern Azerbaijan during the Ilkhanat. Attention is paid to the period of the conquest of the region and the beginning of the restoration of its economic potential. The paper examines the main directions of development of the cities of Arran and Shirvan, their ethnic composition. The study analyzes the activities of the Ilkhans Hulagu and Gazan, as far-sighted managers, thanks to whose activities old trade and cultural centers began to revive and to be established.
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The paper discussed four episodes from the medieval Serbian past when personalunions’ concept formed the basis for resolving complex regional diplomatic relations. The first two dates in King Milutin’s (1282–1321) and Stephen Dečanski`s (1321–1331) reigns. In both instances,the unification proposals came from Bulgaria. Furthermore, Sigismund von Luxembourg (1387–1437) acquired in 1394 the right to receive the Bosnian royal crown. With the decline of Hungarian influence in Bosnia, the prospects of realizing this bold plan lost momentum. The last case examines the prevailing circumstances that led to establishing a short-lived personal union between Bosnia and the Serbian Despotate 1458/1459.
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The earliest information about the use of firearms in the Bulgarian lands comes from the chronicles of Cabaret and Servion. According to them, the fleet of Amadeus VI of Savoy shelled Nesebar on 21 October 1366, after which the city was stormed. Considering the information on the use of firearms in Europe and in the Western Balkans, as well as some expenses from the account book of Antonio Barberi, the author speculates that the information from both chronicles could be considered true.
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The hierarchical type of clothing in the mural paintings of the Romanian Orthodox churches in the14th century is presented as a new discourse both in the research of the idea of unity of the Romanian Orthodox space in a period when this idea was not officially stated, as well as for the importance in itself of the hierarchical attire that, so far, historiography have not studied more closely. The present study envisages the establishment of cultural interconnections both between Wallachia and Transylvania and between them and the areas of eastern and western artistic influence, in order to identify the transfer of vestments patterns from one area of culture to another, the extent to which they were adapted to the area of “adoption” and last but not least, the interest that determined the implementation of several hierarchs figures in the mural theme of some of the churches. Again, the research aims to capture those models of hierarchs that, despite their clerical rank, are depicted in garments of different composition depending on the context in which they are painted.
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Diplomacy is predominantly a territory reserved for men but as early as the Middle Ages, women were actively intervening in it. This is especially true of the governing personas. Bulgarian female rulers were no exception. There are many known attempts made by them to actively take part in the formation of alliances, entering into agreements and other aspects of international relations. The sources also provide evidence of the ambitions of some of Bulgarian queens to implement their personal diplomatic projects. The personalities that stand out in this respect are Maria Palaiologina and the so-called Smiltsena although their projects did not find their realization for one reason or another.
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The article proves that such properties of writing as its ability to develop, the formation of an attitude to consistent compliance with the requirements of rational optimization in the further search of acceptable forms, dialogicity, allow us to determine the facts that paleographers have been trying to find for a long time: about the connection of writing with “socio-economic and political processes”. The metamorphoses of writing that took place in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the turn of the 14th and 15th centurie should be put on a par with the changes in social and political order in this state. The society of this time was retreating from traditions and opening up to innovations. In such an action as the transition to cursive writing, you can see the “trigger” mechanism of all further changes associated with the constitution of this graphic type of writing. This mechanism is the “emancipation” of writing, which opened up a wide space for him to maneuver, search and develop. The following assumption is made. The system-forming processes in writing are not self-sufficient; they are closely related to changes in the configurations of society, authority and culture, under the influence of the same factors and causes.
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The paper describes and analyses a group of six coats-of-arms engraved on the foot of a Gothic reliquary cross from the 14th-15th centuries (the object is not uniform) in the collection of the Museum in Sandomierz. The cross proper with enamelled plates was made in the 14th century, while in the 15th a reliquary box was added with a foot, on which the coats-of-arms were placed. The analysis of the heraldic programme indicates that the armorial group should be dated to 1440 and linked to the person of King Władysław III (of Varna). Therefore, the dating of the reliquary box and the foot of the cross, accepted so far by the literature as the second half of the 15th century, should be corrected to the years 1439-1440, while the added elements should be recognised – contrary to earlier opinions – as a foundation of King Władysław III.
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The oldest of the three known manuscripts of the Arabic Liber de causis (Leiden, Bibliotheek der Rijksuniversiteit, Or. 209) and its Latin translation by Gerhard of Cremona transmit this work under the title Kitāb al-Īḍāḥ li-Arisṭūṭālīs fī l-Ḫayr al-maḥḍ respectively Liber Aristotelis de expositione bonitatis purae. The attribution to Aristotle was already doubted in the Latin West in the first half of the 13th century. Albertus Magnus held to the Aristotelian origin of the Liber de causis and possibly had the Theologia Aristotelis in mind, but he was already aware when he wrote the De homine (Summa de creaturis, Part II) that behind this supposed work of Aristotle there was not Aristotle alone, but several authors. A careful reading of Albertus’ explanations on the question of the author of the Liber de causis, which he presents at the beginning of his commentary on this work seems to offer some clues for the assumption that he considered its author to be identical with the author of the Elementatio physica, i.e. Proclus. For a cautious interpretation of Albertus’ statements in this sense, some external indications will be considered in addition to the internal reasons.
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In my previous LOGOS article I explained how Aquinas’ actus understanding of the existence, or being, of the thing is not a victim to Suarez’s infinite regress objection to the “Thomistic” real distinction. As such Aquinas does not fall victim to Heidegger’s reduction of Suarez to Heidegger himself. The current article continues my presentation of Aquinas’ unique actus understanding of the existence, or being, of a thing. By focusing upon a passage from Aquinas’ early De Ente et Essentia, I try to present how Aquinas philosophically elaborates casual implications in actus essendi. These implications lead to a first cause that Aquinas identifies with the God of his religious belief. Aquinas’ identification sets the stage for a revisiting of Heidegger’s ontotheology complaint. I will reconsider this complaint in a following article.
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Review of: Jan Zelenka: Vom Beneficial-zum Lehnswesen. Eine vergleichende Analyse sächsi-scher und böhmischer Quellen des 10.–14. Jahrhunderts. (Geschichte, Bd. 167.) LIT. Berlin 2019. 222 S. ISBN 978-3-643-14281-8
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The structure of the article: the first section discusses the significance of Expositio in the light of other work by Johannes Marienwerder. The second section is concerned with the principal qualities of the Church in their relation to the Scripture, so as to examine the ecclesiological element in the interpretation of the Article 9 of the Apostles’ Creed and in the remainder of Expositio. That section concludes with findings from the analysis of how biblical texts are used in Marienwerder’s ecclesiological disquisition. Finally, attention is drawn to the relation between the conception of the Church in Expositio and the reformatory postulations advanced in the ecclesiastical and scholarly circles of Bohemian Prague in the second half of the fourteenth century. The mission of the Church is closely aligned with the biblical testimonies, which shed light on its nature and the purpose of its existence. The Holy Scripture also provides knowledge about the principal characteristics of the Church: unity, dignity and constancy. The biblical texts also supply a foundation thanks to which the errors and heresies directed against the Church can be repudiated. The considerably emphasized importance of the Scripture was characteristic of the new theology deriving from the current of devotio moderna. This study constitutes a preliminary to further research on the ecclesiology of Marienwerder.
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The investigations presented in this paper research concern the Latin manuscript of the Expositio Symboli Apostolorum by Jan of Kwidzyn (b. 1343, d. 1417). The Commentary was probably written between 1399 and 1401 in Kwidzyn, and qualifies as a theological and practical commentary in terms of genres of mediaeval literature. Expositio Symboli consists of a prologue and 12 articles with an appendix. The paper aims to demonstrate how often the work refers to the writings of St Augustine and his thought and provides the particular sources of such references and their purpose. It has been established that Jan of Kwidzyn, whose Commentary is a vessel for his theological views, made relatively frequent use of fragments of the works of St Augustine and his conceptions, with approximately 80 references to over 20 texts by St Augustine in the form of quotations and paraphrases. The paper itself represents an innovative contribution.
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Godfryd de Charny is the author of the Book of Chivalry (Livre de chevalerie). The direct context of this work creation were multiple French defeats and the advantage of the Englishmen in the Hundred Years’ War, as well as the foundation of the Order of the Knights with the Red Star in 1352 and positive changes that this foundation triggered. The French knight, seeing multiple abuses, noticed the urgent need of the chivalric state reformation. Undoubtedly, his work is one of the most precious sources of knowledge for the medieval thought and customs. In the present article, based on the abovementioned work of Godfryd de Charny, the chivalric models have been presented. Those models are vocation and service, and they put on the first place honour, courage and bravery. All knights’ actions are subordinated to the superior principle of honourable conduct. A knight should be of noble birth and godly. He can earn the most considerable glory by the armed acts, heroism on the battlefield and loyalty.
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The aim of the study. In Ukrainian numismatics the attention was paid to show the finds of Prague grosz in the publications of topographies of single finds and treasures, to study coins with countermarks and counterfeited coins. The cutting of the Prague grosz in Galicia was studied separately. Prague grosz spread almost immediately in Poland and Prussia, through Galicia it reached Podillia, Volhynia and Polissia, through Transcarpathia it reached Hungary and Moldova particularly using river trade routes and focusing on salt mining cities and trade centers. The chronology of the arrival of Czech coins can be conditionally divided into three main periods: initial – before the beginning of the mass arrival of coins (1378–1419); being in circulation mainly coins of Vaclav IV (1378–1419); the final period – getting into treasures together with coins of the 16th–18th centuries. Finds of early Bohemian coins are the rarest. Most of the finds of Prague grosz of Wenceslas II (1300–1305) and John I of Luxembourg (1340–1346) were fixed on the territory of Western Ukraine. The presence of Wenceslas II coins in the later hoards may be caused by those coins that remained in circulation in the middle of the 14th century entering the deposits together with coins of later rulers. During the time of Jan I of Luxemburg, minting of the gold coin – the florin – was resumed in Kutnia Hora. The most numerous Bohemian coins in the European finds are the coins of Charles I (1346–1378) and Wenceslas IV (1378–1419). Mass receipts of Czech coins are observed in the 1380s – at the beginning of In the 1400s, the coins of Wenceslas IV and his predecessors were in circulation for decades until they were almost completely erased, while the issuer itself did not play a role in the coin for the majority of the population – the Prague grosz was perceived as a unit of silver. The Prague grosz of George from Podebrad (1457–1471) practically did not take part in monetary circulation. Coins of Wladyslaw II (1490–1516) were recorded in the Volyn finds as part of treasures with gold ducats. During the reign of Ludovicus I, a new mint was opened in Joachimsthal in 1518, but Prague grosz was minted until 1526. Coins of Ferdinand I (1526–1564) are more typical of later hoards. In most cases, small treasures with Prague grosz were near 100 pieces, which indicates the use of the coin by broad sections of the population in everyday life. An interesting feature of treasures with Prague grosz is determined by the number of coins – the copa – 60 coins, or a half-copa – 30 coins. Treasures with coins of the Golden Horde deserve special attention, which is invested in the study of the eastern way of further promotion of Bohemian coins. The finds with early Lithuanian coins and Kyiv coins of Volodymyr Olherdovich, as well as hryvnia ingots of various types, are particularly interesting, which helps to study more carefully the chronology of the use of hryvnias in circulation. As for the finds of Prague grosz in the Muscovite region, it is most likely that their arrival in the East can be attributed to the third chronological period of the spread of the Prague grosz – together with the later coins of the XVI–XVII centuries, the Prague grosz clearly did not reproduce its own distinct features of circulation in this territory. Fragments of the Prague grosz were often used in monetary circulation to make trade deals more flexible – they end up both as part of treasures and as single finds. Two broken halves of the same coin can often be found in one treasure. The metal composition of the coins corresponds to deposit silver, the main impurity of the precious metal is copper, stable impurities are bismuth and lead. The period of overprinting is from the last decades of the 15th century to the beginning of the 16th century (1370–1510). Coins with countermarks from the German cities of Ulm, Augsburg, Salzburg, and Regensburg, as well as the Czech cities of Prague, Brno, and Iglau, are the most common among those discovered in Ukraine. The reason for the presence of several countermarks on the coins at once may be the desire of German cities to create a currency unions and to approve the Prague grosz at the local level. Traditionally, the process of minting Prague grosz is associated with a loss in the quality of the metal of later issues of Prague grosz, as well as with the beginning of minting coins in Lviv. Trimmed Prague grosz up to a diameter of 20 mm was trimmed more like the silver coins of the Golden Horde in order to bring it closer to the weight standard of Horde coins of Khan Uzbek (1312–1342) or Janibek (1342–1357). In Ukrainian numismatic historiography, there are practically any works on the introduction into scientific circulation of new varieties of the Prague grosz, the study of the varieties of the legend and the image of a lion with crowns. Counterfeiters has produced and tried to put into circulation the coins imitating Prague grosz of the most mass issue – the time of the reign of John I of Luxembourg and Wencesluas IV(III). The Conclusions. Despite the numerous scientific publications and study of the circulation of the Prague grosz in Ukraine, despite the obviousness of many aspects of the role of this coin, there are certain issues that require clarification and more careful attention of researchers in further scientific research on this topic. These are, in particular: research and thorough analysis of treasures of Prague grosz with coins of other issuers and especially hryvnia ingots, identification and introduction into scientific circulation of new undescribed stamp varieties of Prague grosz, based on materials from museum collections; clarifying the role of late Prague grosz and introducing their finds into scientific circulation; the finds of Prague grosz in regions already remote from the main area of distribution deserve special attention.
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Because of the absence of a written sources on the metrology of Galician Rus‘ coins minted in Lviv in the 14th–15th centuries, the only possible method to study its metrology remains the analysis of the weight and fineness of the coins. And as larger coin data base will be available for analysis as more correct the result will be. However, the fact of the origin of the coins included in the analysis is also important. It happened that in our first research we had an access to the coins mainly from museum or private collections (1744 coins were studied at that time). Coins for these collections have been accumulated for years, without being tied to specific treasures. At the same time, even if the coins came from finds, collectors chose for their collections the rarest cancellations or dies in the best condition. Such specimens had, accordingly, more weight. At that time, the author did not manage to explore any treasure. As further studies have shown, the obtained results of the average weight of these coins were overestimated. The silver fineness of the Galician coins did not depend on their condition (worn, trimmed), so we had determined the fineness correctly. Since 2007, information has appeared about new finds of coins - now more than 8,000 of them are known, including those in treasures in their entirety. It became possible to determine the metrology of coins on the basis of treasure material, which, of course, is more logical. But at the same time, it should be borne in mind that even hoard finds will correctly reflect the metrology of coins mostly from the latest, youngest coin in the hoard. Instead, coins of the previous issues could be diluted from the heaviest specimens. Unfortunately, it was not possible to notice the treasures, which would exclusively contain the coins of Casimir III the Great, or those where the youngest coin would be minted by Vladislav of Opole. Let's look at the published hoards, where the coins of Louis the Hungarian are the youngest, and where the weight of all his coins from the find is given. We know 5 such treasures: from Myliatyn, Lviv region (20 coins), village Suprunivtsi, Khmelnytskyi region (94 coins), Smotrych of Khmelnytskyi region (383 coins), Monastyrok of the Vinnytsia region (35 coins) and from Moshuriv, Cherkasy region (47 coins). The calculation of the average arithmetic and average modal weight of silver Galician Rus' groszes of Louis the Hungarian from these treasures is 1.06 g, while the data obtained by the author in a previous study based on museum and private collections was higher at 1.08–1.09 g. The difference was 0.02–0.03 g. As we expected, the real weight of coins from this finds is less than the weight of selected coins from collections. A similar result will be obtained from the study of three treasures, where the youngest are silver Galician grosz of Władysław II Jagiełło: from Yaktoriv, Lviv region (66 coins), Shenderiv of Vinnytsia region (196 coins) and from Monastyrok of the Vinnytsia region (28 coins). The obtained results (0.93–0.94 g) are 0.01–0.03 g lower than those calculated in 2007 (0.94–0.97 g) Summarizing this small experience of treasure analysis, the importance should be noted: - taking into account the full composition of findings; - time frames of specific coin issues; - a continuous process of "catching" heavier copies from circulation.
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The reconstruction of St Maurice in Olomouc was one of the most important building projects in late medieval Moravia. Research assumes that the work began in 1415 and continued, with several interruptions, into the late 15th century. This paper wants to critically examine the dating of the choir as eastern part of the parish church parish church between 1453 and 1483/1492. It approaches the building enterprise with a detailed analysis of the stylistic, typological and archaeological findings and highlights the dynamics behind the outlined designs. Especially the ambitious and, for this region, unusual designs share far-reaching artistic connections with important centers such as Wrocław, Brno and Vienna. Therefore, this paper proposes that the project`s exceptional value is imbedded in Central Europe’s architectural history.
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