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The author of the study analysed 16 selected narrative sources from the Czech lands. His aim was to attempt to present how the relationship of two social groups (nobility and burghers) had been changing from the point of view of chroniclers. To illustrate the relationship between the aristocracy and the towns, three chronicles have proven to be the most helpful sources: Chronicle of Dalimil (Kronika tak řečeného Dalimila), Chronicle of Zbraslav (Zbraslavská kronika) and Old Czech Annals (Staré letopisy české). For the so-called Dalimil, it was the attitude towards Germans that was decisive for the assessment of social groups. He highlighted the nobles as fighters against the Germans, on the contrary, the burghers were enemies of the land. Petr Žitavský in Chronicle of Zbraslav criticized the noblemen for disrupting the order in the country, however, he did not possess understanding for the burghers either. Most information and suggestions on the relationship between nobility and towns can be found in the Old Czech Annals. The work, written mostly by burghers, is severely anti-aristocratic; gentlemen and knights were constantly harming the towns.
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The thesis pertains to the modern consideration of circumstance happened in the beginning of governance of Tamar of Georgia, as well as appearance of Kurtlu-Arslan’s group during 1184-1185 who had introduced the unique requirement for that time and following period –establishment of special governing body “Karavi” adjacent to KingdomHall in Isani. This had to be the institution like Parliament without attendance of King and Karavi’s members had to determine legislative, judiciary and personnel matters while Tamar of Georgia had to only execute their decisions.The appearance of Kurtlu-Arslani’s group is the historical event and is three years ahead from calling of Cortes in the Kingdom of Castile, Spain, in 1188 and is 30 years ahead from “"the Great Charter of the Liberties" forced to John Lackland by the Barons of England in 1215 on the basis of which in 1265 was established the Parliament in England.This was the Georgian model of political authority demarcation of which foundations were elaborated by Locke and Montesquieu during XVII-XVIII centuries, after the five centuries.This was the “Third Estate” uprising for limitation of king’s governance and demarcation of political authority and it had the world-historical meaning.
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The study aims to showcase and analyse the fundamental impact Bishop (Archbishop) Albert of Sternberg had on the town of Sternberg. Although the Bishop was very busy administering his dioceses (he was Bishop of Zvěřín, Bishop of Litomyšl, Archbishop of Magdeburg), and had many other obligations with the court of Emperor Charles IV, he always found time to implement his Sternberg plans. No written information indicates that the Bishop had established Sternberg as a town (“second location of the town”). It remains unclear, based on the condition of the documents, whether the Bishop transferred the town centre to its current location or whether this had been done by his predecessors. Only an extensive archaeological survey could provide the answer to this question, as it would help date the origin of the various parts of the town. It has been demonstrated that the Bishop completed the construction of the town walls and remodelled the Sternberg castle (building the castle chapel and possibly the entire south wing of the castle). The Bishop changed the look of the town by founding two monasteries. His successor, Peter of Sternberg, closed the lower one, however, following Albert’s death.
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There have been various scientific studies on Georgians, striving to make names for themselves in Jerusalem. Since Muslims had dominated the holy land, Georgian politicians and religious leaders constantly raised a subject on liberation of Jerusalem with European countries and promised allies their support. Georgia’s effort especially was apparent during the ruling of king Lasha Giorgi the IV (1213-1223), when he intended to participate in the fifth crusade and even had the route for the attack to allies of Egypt drawn up. Alas, his plans had to be altered because of the Mongolian invasion in Georgia. He died after he had been wounded gravely in the battle. After the Mongolian occupation, Georgian rulers tried to take advantage of Mongolian and Egyptian war and free the holy land ( they had been trying to return Jerusalem to its rightful Christian owners for twenty years with Armenian kings of Cilicia). The article claims that the St. Cross Monastery book recording of funeral prayers ( Aghapi) gives us the information on King Vakhtang the third ( 1298 or 1302-1308) and Mongolian army were in Jerusalem and at St. Cross monastery, near Jerusalem in December, 1299 and in January 1300. The recording tells us that the king gave significant donation to monks, who used the income to do some renovations of the monastery. Thus, this claim elucidates quite remarkable facts that Georgian and Armenian kings among Mongols were in Jerusalem in January 1300. (although, some European and Georgian scholars show skepticism to the information).
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This paper analyses two lists of errors in the Waldesian cult, as contained in manuscripts I F 230 (from 1399, and its twin manuscript Mil II 58), as well as I F 707 (from the early 15th century). The list in manuscript I F 230 was compiled earlier, whereas the one from manuscript I F 707 is identical with the list included in manuscript No. 229 from the library in Pelplin. The comparison of the anti-heretic lists of errors from manuscripts I F 230 and I F 707, as well as the analysis of their contents, reveals similarities and leads to a conclusion that they both refer to writings by inquisitor Petrus Zwicker, while the list in I F 230 could have been even authored by him.
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The Catholic chapter in Orod was an important place of proof for the counties of Arad, Zarand and Timiș in the 13th–16th centuries. The article reconstructs, based on medieval documentary sources, as far as possible, the history of the Arad canons who carried out their activity within the chapter in Orod, in the 12th–14th centuries. In the case of some canons, the documents also specify the position held (prefect, lecturer, archdeacon, clergyman in the pew of the church, custodian, dean, etc.). Several presidents of Arad in the 13th century held important positions at the court of the kings of Hungary. Magistrate Benedict, the provost of Arad, was, in 1263–1265, vice‑chancellor of the royal court in Buda. The Archdeacon of Arad, Bonioan de Campello, was in direct correspondence with the papacy of Avignon and later became the Catholic bishop of Bosnia (in the middle of the 14th century). A series of canons of the Arad chapter participated, at the request of the kings of Hungary, in the 13th–14th centuries, in conducting judicial investigations, in case of patrimonial and financial disputes between various nobles. We cannot reconstruct the complete litany of the canons from the 12th–14th centuries and, specially, the functions they held within the Arad chapter. With few exceptions, we cannot highlight their careers in various ecclesiastical institutions throughout Hungary.
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This work covers the historical framework, technical and photographic recording of the stecak tombstone at the Mramorje/Bektica Hill site in the Bektici settlement, Srebrenica municipality. The analysis of tombstones in the field enabled the collection of basic data about the monuments. The shape of the tombstones and the abundance of decorations usually depend on the time in which they were created. Thus, on the basis of the represented forms of stecak tombstones and niches and the recorded decorations on them, the stecak tombstones can be dated to the developed Middle Ages (XIV and XV centuries).
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The article aims to approach the theme of the progress of the Turkish brigades into the Byzantine territories, in particular the Mount Athos, during the fourteenth century. It provides a new perspective for this topic. Indeed, it focuses on the hagiographical sources and how they describe the reaction of the Athonite monks in front of this phenomenon. The sources have been set according to a thematic order: 1) cases of escape from the Holy Mountain after the Turkish raids; 2) reports of or from captivity; 3) the consequences of the Turkish progress into the Asiatic and Western provinces of the Byzantine Empire; 4) the psychological impact on the monastic communities of Athos, and finally 5) the relationship between Athonite monks and Islamic communities in the Holy Land as favorite pilgrimage destination. The perception of the violence of the Turkish troops forces the Athonite communities to a general reconsideration of lifestyle and of ascetical practices. Moreover, it indirectly causes the propagation of the hesychast lifestyle out of the borders of the Holy Mountain during the late Byzantine period. Out of fear for the Islamic enemies the hagiographers take the opportunity to praise the ethical qualities of their monastic champions. On the other hand, in these sources they do not deal with Islamic morals; the violence of the enemies is the unique theme they consider as a priori distinguished feature of Muhammed’s followers.
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Mid-fourteenth-century Byzantine sources bear witness to an increased interest in Iconoclasm among the theologians involved in the Hesychast Controversy. The writings of the defenders of icon veneration were mined for authoritative quotations and the history of Iconoclasm became a repository of historical role models. This article is comprised of two sections. The first part expands a catalogue of texts of the epoch which make explicit reference to precedents in the Iconoclast period. The second part assesses, first, the polemical advantages and disadvantages of the accusation of iconoclasm in mid-fourteenth-century Byzantium by revisiting the afterlife of this label after the Triumph of Orthodoxy. Secondly, it traces the dynamics of how Iconoclasm was remembered in the Hesychast debate, distinguishing between the mythologizing and the philological levels of remembrance. The conclusion draws a connection between Nikephoros Gregoras’ approaches to theological polemics and to hagiography. The initial success and eventual fading-away of the iconoclastic motif in Hesychast polemics is explained by the uniqueness of Gregoras’ literary method and his personal circumstances.
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Aucune des villes de la Moldavie médiévale n’a possédé un acte de naissance, une charte princière qui puisse fournir la date précise de sa fondation; l’ancienneté de ces villes est toujours rapportée à leur première mention documentaire. C’est – il va sans dire – une convention dont les fondements sont assez fragiles, vu l’énorme quantité de documents perdus, surtout pour les XIVe - XVe siècles. L’argument essentiel repose, donc, sur une source dont la survivance est due au hasard. L’auteur suggère une comparaison avec les vieilles familles, dont l’ancienneté est aussi rapportée à la première mention du patronyme – et c’est toujours un document qui a survécu par hasard; mais, assez souvent, il est possible de récupérer plusieurs décennies et de fixer les débuts généalogiques d’une famille par l’étude de certains détails particuliers (propriétés, prénoms utilisés etc.). Quant aux villes, l’historiographie officielle a accepté comme „premières attestations documentaires” les dates des actes produits par la chancellerie princière, et ces dates ont servi pour célébrer solennellement les anniversaires des villes, tandis que d’autres sources ont été évitées de manière systématique, sous des prétextes assez diverses – rejetées comme fausses, considérées confuses, déclarées non dignes de foi. Une sorte de hyper-criticisme à la Hardouin a mis au ban ces sources à l’aide desquelles on peut faire remonter de quelques décennies l’ancienneté de certaines villes, pour parvenir jusqu’à la seconde moitié du XIVe siècle, sinon à l’époque même de la fondation de l’État. Les chercheurs doivent adopter une attitude plus flexible envers ces sources „non-conventionnelles” pour les analyser en toute objectivité, au-delà de tout parti-pris.
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The restoration of the mural paintings in the Church of Saint Nicholas, Rădăuţi, which has just been achieved, shows new light on an iconographic ensemble devoted to Archangel Michael. The author relates these paintings to the dedication of the first church in Rădăuţi, built in oak wood, predating the reign over Moldavia of Bogdan Ist of Maramures, of his son Lațcu and the boyar Costea, husband of Margareta/ Mușata, mother of Petru Ist and of Roman Ist. Petru is the founder of the church in stone, the only one to survive. In both churches were buried Moldavia’s voivodes of the second half of the fourteenth century. In sign of deep veneration toward his ancestors, Stephen the Great had Mistr Jan carve their tombstones in 1479 – 1480, when the inside of the church was also painted. It is at the same epoch that the higher narthex of the Saint Nicholas church was constructed. The hagiographic cycle is made up of 25 sequences, either entirely or partially conserved. Most of them are inspired by the Old Testament, one by the New Testament, two by the scenes of the Archangel’s miracle at Chonae, and two others by historically attested characters – emperors Constantine the Great and Justinian. Apart from this rich iconography with its outstanding illustrations, the ensemble was the work of an exceptionally gifted painter, whose style was remarkably refined.
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Made "at the command of a [his] gracious and special lord and master" the Art de dictier et de faire chançons, balades, virelays and rondeaux is presented on November 25 1392 by Deschamps which makes him the first author of a poetic art in French. This treaty, unrecognized until the dawn of the twentieth century is now like the milestone of modern lyricism. By situating poetry with music in the arts of the quadrivium Deschamps speaks of it as a " natural music" whose means are musicality of "metrified words" that a poet feels, he says, in an innate way and which makes sensitive the thoughts, feelings, topics it deals with, addressed to listeners and readers who also have this sense of the natural music of poetic language whose means expression, sounds and rhythms are ordered by the poet. Although Deschamps honors the dignity and powers of seduction of his harmonious compositions of the "artificial" (artistic)music, newly defined as Ars Nova since 1320 by Philippe de Vitry and later Machaut, he presents also poetry as a "natural" music whose musicality depends from its poetic language. He thus opens a lyrical way to that which was until then dependent on Rhetoric. He thus announces long before the enthusiasms of the Pléiade the delight of the lyrical voice such as Valéry defines it five centuries later.
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During investigations on the architectural history at the fortified church of Mortesdorf/Motiş in Transylvania parts of a human skeleton buried before the construction of the church in the 13th century were recovered. The length of the Humerus allowed estimation of the body height between 165 and 170 cm. While the pelves were missing the skull was pretty good preserved. Dental wear and the stage of suture closure indicated an age between 20 and 24 years. Only slightly pronounced masculine traits made male sex probable. To give an idea of the phenotype of this young man a facial reconstruction seemed desirable. Based on the skull morphology a graphical reconstruction was achieved.
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Archaeological investigations in situ at the level of the cadastral area of Răcășdia (2014–2016) came into discovering of 13 medieval settlements (the 7th–13th centuries). Apart from them, settlements belonging to more ages were also identified: Bronze Age, Iron Age and the time between the 2nd and the 4th centuries A. D. All of them were registered to the National Archeological Repertory to be so protected up to the law, especially against to the works (human interventions) that could destroy them. The present issue aims to note if a special pattern of early medieval settlements could be find at Răcășdia, dated up to the ceramics found there. Morphometric measurements were taken into account, as follows: slope, orientation of the slopes and height, and the distance to the water. Interesting results came out after the data processing as we had it coming, which frame some of the features of the medieval communities in Răcășdia area.
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On August 29, 1359, King Louis I of Anjou granted the Recaş estate (in the present-day Romanian Banat) to the sons of Ladislas, the son of Zarna, Olachorum nostrorum fidelium. The king of Hungary had taken that estate from Nicholas, Philip and John (likewise Wallachians) who had been unfaithful to both Louis I and to his father, Charles-Robert. The sons of Ladislas in return had sided with Angevine monarch when the lord of these sons of Ladislas, Alexander Basarab, voivode of Wallachia, had refused to acknowledge King Louis as his natural suzerain. For this, the sons of Ladislas had lost their lands and fortunes and had to take refuge in the Hungarian kingdom. Still, they went on and distinguished them in King Louis’ service, specialiter ante Jadram et in partibus Treuisianis. The charter bore the royal double seal and was confirmed by the main secular and ecclesiastical authorities of the Angevine realm, including the bishops of Zadar, Nicholas de Matafaris, and Split, Ugolin de Malabranca. Louis I certainly cared much about these Wallachians, especially about one of Ladislas’ sons, Karapeh a future familiar of the royal court., and valued their loyalty, proven especially – according to the same king – in front of Zadar. As indicated also by the less than triumphant words of the son of Charles-Robert, these Adriatic deeds were accomplished in the summer of 1346, during King Louis’ failed attempt to relieve the city of Zadar besieged by the Venetian forces. It was against the soldiers of the same Republic of Saint Mark that the Wallachiane exiles distinguished themselves while fighting in the neighbourhood of Treviso in mid–1357. Conspicuously enough since the 1830s, as well as well into the 1970s, both Hungarian and Romanian historians and editors have avoided a proper reading of the et in partibus Treuisianis wording in the royal charter from 1359. Treuisianis was either “transliterated” Transmarinis or the passage was omitted from the editions and labelled “lacuna in the original charter”. The Hungarian part was seemingly afraid that the passage might read Trans(s)iluanis, meaning – erroneously? – that Louis I had to fight also the Wallachians for haloed Transylvania The Romanian part – “justifiably” – feared that the correct reading, Treuisianis, would lead to the collapse of the historiographical vulgate of the beginnings of Wallachia. That vulgate was founded on a strange graffito discovered in the Princely Saint Nicholas Church in Curtea de Argeş in 1920, a few months after the Peace of Trianon.
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Throughout history, water has been an important issue for civilizations. Societies preferred the waterside to live. They needed a place with for cleaning. As a result of this need, hammam structures were shaped. Hammams have become important structures in the architecture of many societies. Within the scope of Turkish architecture, hammam structures were seen as important places. With the passing of Anatolia under Turkish domination, hammam structures were built in many settlements. One of these settlements is Denizli. Thanks to its natural water resources, the city has a very rich history in terms of hammam structures. However, Germiyanoğlu (Vakiflar) Hammam, one of the historical hammam, has survived to the present day. Within the scope of the study, this structure, which partially preserved its original function, was discussed. The women's section of the building is used as a business today. The men's section continues to function as a hammam. The aim of the study is to carry out an examination on the original situation of the building, which was built as a double hammsm and the compilation of information about its use as two different places today. In this way, it has been ensured to reveal the situation of the double hammam which continues to be used as two different spaces in everyday life, in the face of its differentiated functions, and to introduce elements such as facade features, interior organization by comparing them with the original situation.
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In the article I address such issues as the place of the plague’s outbreak and its chronology. Next, I indicate the existence of three epidemic phases, as the fact needs to be emphasised more in the literature. In the following parts, I point out the rhetorical nature of the descriptions, which makes it impossible to identify the pathogen and thus to determine its mortality rate. I further focus on climate, archaeology, and papyri, showing that the data taken from these sources do not allow us to overestimate the impact of the plague. I also present the population’s reaction in the face of pestilence and its effects on the so-called third-century crisis. I conclude the arguments with a source appendix.
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The Statutes of Casimir the Great were the most important law in force in the Kingdom of Poland in the Middle Ages. Apart from the articles in the form of general acts, there are 26 articles that have the character of individual legal cases, the so-called ‘prejudykaty’ (preliminary rulings, prejudicates). The article attempts to explain their genesis. In the author’s opinion, they show a significant resemblance to medieval papal decretals (litterae decretales), in particular the Decretals of Gregory IX from 1234. Although they concerned individual legal cases, they were a model for the correct resolution of a specific legal case. They had the character of legal instructions or declarations of law (declaratio iuris) announced by the king.
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This study aims to investigate the relationship between visual culture and theological disputes during the pre‑Hussite and Hussite eras. By looking at fourteenth‑century Last Judgment scenes from the Hungarian Kingdom that contain an image of a demon bound to the column inside Leviathan’s jaws, I analyze the connections between this figure and the eschatological and Antichrist‑ related discourse used by both Church representatives and preachers of the Reformation in Bohemia.
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