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One of the most important periods in the development of child is the pre-school age. Therefore the author of this article deals specially with this period. At first the general characterization of this period is given. Next takes the author into the consideration the physical development of the child in the pre-school period. After that the psychic development is discussed. In the psychic development he describes the intellectual, volitive and emotional one. The next part of the article considers the social development in the pre-school period. Then is the moral and religious development in this age discussed. In the final part of the article is the education of the child in the pres-school period considered.
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Starting from Bengtson's solidarity paradigm, we will investigate the role of internalized family norms in intergenerational support as well as experienced ambivalence from the adult child perspective. We assume that internalized family norms are an important determinant of relationship regulation as they have an impact both on the selection of specific behavior as well as on its evaluation. As a consequence, own and others' behavior should be most positively evaluated if it is in line with internalized norms and values. In contrast, if intergenerational solidarity and support exchange do not converge with internalized norms and expectations, ambivalence might be experienced. These assumptions are examined in a sample of N = 131 middle-aged adults living in Luxembourg and Germany. Findings showed that normative aspects of intergenerational solidarity were less important compared to affective aspects when predicting support exchange between adult children and their parents; however, family values had a moderating role in the relation between support exchange and ambivalence. Results are discussed with respect to the centrality of values in implicitly and explicitly guiding support behavior within families.
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The causes of human behavior cannot be simple. Every move we make has a nested hierarchy of causes that affect its direction, timing and form. The billiard-ball type of causality that is usually assumed to explain human action cannot give sufficient justice to this complexity. In this paper, I point to those perspectives that respect the complexity of cognitive systems and recognize that cognition involves changes on many nested time scales and in many nested systems. A brief overview of methods that are suitable for dealing with such interaction-dominant complex systems is presented and used as a background for describing a specific research program with the aim of clarifying the role of language as one of the nested factors shaping cognition. I illustrate this endeavor with two studies: one concerning the development of language as interaction control and another detailing how language may shape cognitive processes on several timescales. Reconciliation with complexity leads us to ask slightly different questions and expect different answers than when using simplified componential models of cognition and helps demarcate the limits of predictability.
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Place: Spain, La Barrosa Date: September 16th – 19th 2016
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Background: The current research literature confirms the link between poverty and psychological characteristics of an individual (Miech, Caspi, Moffitt, Wright, & Silva, 1999). Loix and Pepermans (2009) report criminal behaviour, addiction, low self-esteem, aggression, depression, and suicidal tendencies as subjectively perceived consequences of poverty. Research by Tremblay (2000) and Ezeokana, Obi-Nwos, and Okoye (2014) focused on low-income families has confirmed that long-term poverty is a predictor of physical violence and aggression in children. The relationship between poverty and selected characteristics has been investigated, however, research regarding the moderating effect of poverty on aggression and self-esteem is absent. Research goal: The presented study had two objectives - to verify whether there is a difference between the poor and non-poor people in self-esteem and aggression; and to verify if poverty moderates the relationship between self-esteem and aggression. The study hypothesize that people included in the group of poor will experience lower self-esteem and higher aggression compared to the group of non-poor, and additionally that poverty will moderate the link between self-esteem and aggression. Method: The research sample consisted of 86 employed persons (48 women). The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) aged between 25 and 59 (M = 33.58 SD = 8.10); and (2) a permanent monthly income. The income was dichotomised, and people with up to 400€ per month were assigned to the group of poor (N = 24). The data was obtained using convenience sampling and the actual collection was conducted in person. Two research tools were used - self-esteem was investigated through the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965) and aggression was assessed using the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ; Buss & Perry, 1992). The reliability of the research tools was verified using McDonald's total omega coefficient – RSES: ωTotal = .82; BPAQ: ωTotal = .91. Poverty was examined using 4 response categories: 0 - 198.09€ (sum of the minimum living wage in Slovakia from 2016); 198.09€ - 400€; 400€ - 900€; more than 900€. The test battery also collected basic socio-demographic data. The Independent Samples t-test was employed to examine the differences between the groups of poor and non-poor in regard to self-esteem and aggression, supported by the Bayesian Factor with non-informative prior values (0.707) and sequential analysis. A moderated regression analysis was used to verify the effect of poverty on the relationship of self-esteem and aggression. Results: The Independent Sample t-test found that the poor and non-poor groups did significantly differ in the degree of self-esteem (t(84) = - 3.24, p = .002, Cohen's d = - 0.78, . post-hoc statistic power with α = .05 was 89%), with higher self-esteem achieved by non-poor. No significant differences were found between the groups in relation to aggression (t(84) = 1.20, p = .234, Cohen's d = 0.29, post-hoc statistical power with α = .05 was 22%). The application of moderated regression analysis in a model describing self-esteem as a criterion, aggression as an independent variable and poverty as a moderator was statistically significant (F(3, 28) = 10.43; p < .001; R 2 = .24). Despite a strong correlation between aggression and self-esteem (r = .35), aggression became a non-significant predictor of self-esteem when poverty was included as a moderator (t(82) = 0.42; b = 0.03; p = .672); the poverty itself was a significant predictor (t(82) = 3.28; b = 3.71; p = .002). The interaction between aggression and poverty was not a significant predictor, nevertheless the value was borderline (t(82) = -1.95; b = - 0.14; p = .055). If the person was not poor, self-esteem got lower with increasing aggressiveness (t(82) = - 4.27; b = - 0.11; p <.001). Conclusion: The study confirmed that poverty is a determinant of impaired self-esteem, but based on the available evidence, it is not possible to conclude whether or not poverty affects aggression. Moreover, the effect of poverty on moderating the relationship between self-esteem and aggression was confirmed. The link between aggression and self-esteem was found to be weak in the group of poor people, whereas aggression was shown to be a relatively strong predictor of self-esteem in the group of non-poor people. The limitations of this study are the inclusion criteria for the poor (up to 400€), the sample size and the sampling method.
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Parenting attitudes and children’s perception of parenting attitudes influence many different developmental skills of children, especially their social skills. The current study aims to examine the effects of mothers’ parenting attitudes and children’s perception of maternal parenting on children’s emotion recognition skills via the mediator role of children’s perception of parenting attitudes. One hundred and thirty 2nd-grade children and their mothers living in Ankara participated in the study. Kusche Emotion Inventory, Egna Minnen Beträffande Uppfostran Child form (sEMBU-C) were used as measurements for children while EMBU Parent form and a demographic form were used as measurements for mothers. Results showed that children whose mothers were high in emotional warmth got higher receptive emotion scores; while children, whose mothers scored higher in rejection, got lower receptive emotion scores. In addition, children’s perception of their mothers’ emotional warmth predicted the relationship between mother’s own emotional warmth and receptive emotion scores of children positively; while children’s perception of their mothers’ rejection predicted the relationship between mothers’ own rejection and children’s receptive emotion scores negatively. Overprotection had no predictive role in emotion understanding of children. Limitations of the current study and suggestions for future studies were discussed.
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The study aims to examine how individuals present their selves on Facebook and how those self-presentations are related to several dimensions of their authenticity (self-alienation, acceptance of external influence and authentic life) and to their well-being (self-esteem and life satisfaction). Data were collected from 180 participants (94 students and 86 adults). In both samples, people were found to use Facebook mostly for real-self presentations, followed by the presentations for self-exploration, and next, followed by the presentations for self-deception. Various forms of self-presentations were found to be related to life satisfaction and self-esteem only in the student sample. Among students, the real and the exploratory self-presentations on Facebook were positively associated with life satisfaction, while deceptive self-presentation on Facebook was negatively associated with self-esteem. Besides, self-deception on Facebook was related to the different aspects of authenticity in two different samples: It was positively related to self-alienation and to the acceptance of external influence among students, and negatively related to the authentic life among adults.
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One of the areas considered important for adolescents' positive development is prosocial behaviors. There are various theories focusing on the relationship between prosocial behaviors and motivation, while recently Self-Determination Theory is among the most commonly referenced. When research in this context was investigated, the consistent usage of Prosocial Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-P) was observed. The research aims to adapt SRQ-P to Turkish and investigate its psychometric features. The sample group consisted of 583 (318 females, 265 males) students studying in ninth, tenth, and eleventh grade. The mean age of the sample was 15.9 (SD = .88, range = 13.5 - 18.4). Results of the analysis to specify the psychometric properties of the scale showed that the scale is valid and reliable for adolescent samples. Moreover, it was determined that the scale could be scored in three different ways. These ways are computing relative autonomy score, using the subscales separately, and using autonomous and controlled motivation dimensions.
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Schema theory, innovative-integrative approach based on traditional cognitive-behavioral theory and practice, suggests that early maladaptive schemas are developed as a result of unmet emotional needs and negative experiences in childhood, and individuals organize their lives on the basis of these schemas. Early maladaptive schemas could be thought as cognitive structures shaped by early life experiences and inherited from the past, providing a roadmap for future experiences. Considering dysfunctional nature of early maladaptive schemas in adulthood, it is very crucial to determine how these cognitive schemas are developed in childhood. In this review, research on attachment styles and temperament, parenting styles, and childhood maltreatment experiences, which play a role in the formation of early maladaptive schemas, were reviewed and findings of the research were discussed in terms of theory and practice. Taken together, with schema therapy that provides opportunities to change early maladaptive schemas, we can reconsider the past, make the present healthier and protect the future.
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Parentification is a parent-child interaction pattern in which the child tries to meet the physical and/or emotional needs of the parent by assuming roles and responsibilities that are inappropriate for the child's developmental level. In this review, it was aimed to evaluate the characteristics of parentification and its effects on the individual within the framework of theoretical approaches and research findings. Firstly, the theoretical approaches explaining the definition and types of parentification are introduced. Secondly, risk factors are defined by considering the family patterns which are frequently seen. Thirdly, the positive and negative effects of parentification on children, adolescents and adults, and the variables mediating and moderating these effects were evaluated within the framework of research findings. Lastly, Finally, recommendations to mental health professionals working with parentified children, adolescents and adults were evaluated.
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Adolescents spend most of their time with media. Media broadcasts such as television, movies, internet and music clips frequently include some degree of sexually explicit content. Exposure to these kind of sexual content in media may lead to early sexual intercourse, risky sexual behavior, adolescent pregnancy, alcohol and cigarette consumption, stereotypes about sexuality, acceptance of rape myths and the increase of positive expectancies about sexuality. There are several intervention methods to prevent adolescents from these negative effects. Some of these methods are parental mediation, use of media-rating systems, and media literacy education. Studies show that restrictive parental mediation prevents adolescents from the negative effects of sexual content in media to some degree. Media-rating systems seem useful for the parents but they may lead to forbidden fruit effect on adolescents. However, media literacy education on sexual content in media has a very clear and positive effect in the prevention. Adolescents in Turkey may also be exposed to sexually explicit content through various ways like internet or television. When this situation is considered, presenting information about the effects of sexually explicit content in media and some intervention methods about it may be beneficial. With this review, it is expected to present some information and recommendations to the politicians, parents and researchers.
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In the research paradigm focused on the stress-loaded functioning of single-mother families it has been observed that the efficiency of coping with stress depends on many factors, among which social support is one of the most important. Research results show that a higher level of social support is usually associated with more positive indicators of the functioning of an individual. On the basis of this assumption it was expected that social support provided by grandparents would be a significant predictor of mental resilience in adolescent grandchildren from single-mother families – also in conditions differentiated by household type: living with or without grandparents. Studies performed on a sample of 278 adolescents with the Berlin Social Support Scales (BSSS), the Adolescent–Peer Communication Scale, and the Resilience Measurement Scale (SPP-18) have shown that grandparental social support is not the only predictor of adolescents’ functioning.
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In the research paradigm focused on the stress-loaded functioning of single-mother families it has been observed that the efficiency of coping with stress depends on many factors, among which social support is one of the most important. Research results show that a higher level of social support is usually associated with more positive indicators of the functioning of an individual. On the basis of this assumption it was expected that social support provided by grandparents would be a significant predictor of mental resilience in adolescent grandchildren from single-mother families – also in conditions differentiated by household type: living with or without grandparents. Studies performed on a sample of 278 adolescents with the Berlin Social Support Scales (BSSS), the Adolescent–Peer Communication Scale, and the Resilience Measurement Scale (SPP-18) have shown that grandparental social support is not the only predictor of adolescents’ functioning.
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The Psychological Well-Being Scales (PWBS) is a questionnaire designed by Ryff (1989) to mea-sure six dimensions of eudaimonic well-being: self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth. Translated into several dozen languages, this questionnaire is a commonly used instrument for measuring well-being. The article presents the effects of work on the Polish adaptation of two versions of the PWBS: full (84-item) and short (18-item), conducted as a series of four studies with a total sample of 2,035 participants aged 13 to 78.The results confirmed the reliability of the full version of the PWBS and the six-factor structure of well-being. They also confirmed the criterion validity of the questionnaire, reflected in correlations with validation instruments.
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The Psychological Well-Being Scales (PWBS) is a questionnaire designed by Ryff (1989) to mea-sure six dimensions of eudaimonic well-being: self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth. Translated into several dozen languages, this questionnaire is a commonly used instrument for measuring well-being. The article presents the effects of work on the Polish adaptation of two versions of the PWBS: full (84-item) and short (18-item), conducted as a series of four studies with a total sample of 2,035 participants aged 13 to 78.The results confirmed the reliability of the full version of the PWBS and the six-factor structure of well-being. They also confirmed the criterion validity of the questionnaire, reflected in correlations with validation instruments.
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Social contact theories present strategies to regulate intergroup relations. These theories started with social contact hypothesis proposed by Allport (1954) and continued with extended contact and imagined contact theories to provide appropriate contact solutions for different contexts. The aim of the current paper is to prepare a source in Turkish by reviewing articles related with intergroup contact theory which is one of the oldest theories in psychology literature, and extended contact and imagined contact theories which were proposed based on intergroup contact theory. There are four parts in the paper. The first part includes historical progress in intergroup contact theory and findings of studies related with impact of and the processes in intergroup contact theory. In this part, there are two additional subtitles. These subtitles contain proposals and related findings in social contact hypothesis of Allport (1954) and in intergroup contact theory of Pettigrew (1998). In the second and third parts, findings and hypotheses in extended contact theory and imagined contact theories were demonstrated respectively. Lastly in the fourth part, studies and their findings conducted in Turkey are presented.
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Parenting practices have different effects on children. It is not easy to decide which practices are associated with positive outcomes and which of them with negative ones. The aim of this review was to handle effective parenting within the frame of the parental goals and domain-specific socialization approach. According to the domain-specific socialization approach, parent-child interactions occur in different domains in accordance with parenting goals and children’s needs. Each domain corresponds to a different need of the child (protection, control, play, guidance, group participation), and the parenting practices meeting these needs are stated in this approach as well. The emergence of an effective parenting depends on the match between parents' goals and children’s needs. Further, children are not passive receivers. Same parenting practices may lead to different outcomes for different children. Therefore, while choosing parental practices, parents should take their children’ gender, temperament, and age into account. Finally, the more parents know their children and the more knowledge they have about them, the more their practices would meet their children’ needs.
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The aim of this study is to examine the effects of theory of mind and self-regulation skills on children’s helping behavior. Total of 104 children aging between 36-59 months, participated in the study. Helping behavior was measured with an instrumental helping task. Scaling of Theory-of-Mind tasks were used in measuring theory of mind. As for measuring self-regulation, peg tapping task were used. In order to control receptive language abilities of children, Turkish Expressive and Receptive Language Test (TIFALDI) was applied. Results of the analyses indicated that there were significant relations between theory of mind and self-regulation skills and helping behavior, however, multiple regression analyses showed that the main predictor of helping behavior was theory of mind, but not self-regulation skills after controlling for age and receptive language. Results were discussed with respect to the literature, in relation to the role of theory of mind and self-regulation skills in explaining helping behavior.
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The aim of the study was to investigate reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the Altruism Scale. Data was collected from 94 women (%33.3) and 188 (%66.7) a total number of 282 participants via a web-based online questionnaire software, www.surveey.com. Participants completed Altruism Scale, Empathic Tendency Scale (Dokmen, 1988) and Demographic Information Form. According to exploratory factor analysis results, it was decided to use two sub-scales as helping and philanthropy which explain 35.58% of total variance. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFQ) with a new sample of 356 participants showed that this two factor structure is appropriate. Also, the correlation between Altruism Scale and Empathic Tendency Scale was examined to check external validity and it found as .36. Internal consistency coefficients, test-retest reliability correlations and split-half correlation coefficients were also calculated to check the reliability of the scale. The Cronbach’s alpha value of the helping and philanthropy sub-scales were found as .81 and .70. Split-half correlation coefficients was found as .74 and test-retest reliability was found as .83. In the regards of this information, Altruism Scale was found to have essential reliability and validity to use in Turkish sample.
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