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The horror is mainly connected to fear and its different occurrences. There is general difference between fear and horror as the first one is an emotional reaction and the second is an issue which denies the evil as well its negative effect. The horror always forces the man to the good, to the right and the creativity. Its basis is: understanding-rejection-acceptance. The understanding is related to understanding of a situation, a problem, treatment, panic, etc. The rejection has a meaning of unacceptance of the situations and its conditions. The acceptance is connected to а change of the problem’s solution. That is how the horror appears like a universal principle together with love.
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Increasing Islamophobic rhetoric and practices in recent years have led to the idea that this concept has a deeper mental infrastructure. Islamophobia, which is a religious, political, economic and cultural phenomenon, is confronted as a different version of Xenophobia, which is essentially defined as xenophobia, and shows that it has profound philosophical roots. In this respect, the aim of our work is to demonstrate how is based the philosophical infrastructure of the “Islamophobia” concept and how the opposing argument can be established with the help of philosophy.
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Max Weber deals with issues such as liberation in general with a dual positioning to understand the modern era. His main contribution to the issue of theodicy, which has been discussed in philosophy especially since Leibniz, is that he took it on a sociological level. He shows that the rationalist approach of the modern era tends to explain the issue of evil, and it has tangible consequences in the social sphere. The question of “What is the actual value of Weber's theory, which deals with theodicy and salvation as central themes of religion sociology?” is the focus of this article. In this study, which has a qualitative research pattern, the explanations provided by American denominations of Calvinist origin were compiled on the internet with the purposeful sampling technique. The contents of these articles belonging to the authorized producing religious discourse have been investigated through descriptive analysis technique. As a result, it is determined that the doctrine of the Calvinist salvation and the thought of predestination are maintained today. This theodicy approach operates with different argumentation. This approach, for example, discusses the logic of scientific inferences. It presents the difference between induction and deduction, and doubts about the absolute judgments. According to these interpretations of the disaster, God has a plan beyond the ages and beyond human knowledge. This plan is considered as a matter of faith, as it is above human understanding and will. Finally, although the Covid-19 outbreak is considered to be a judgement, it is stated that it is a judgement for the world (everyone), not for the sins of a single group.
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The relationship of philosophy with religion or theology has maintained its vitality in every period of the history of thought, and as a result of different thinking activities of human beings, serious dissidences have arisen about how these fields are related to each other. Theology, which has an history that goes back to the Ancient Age, has always had a relationship with philosophy. In the Middle Ages, this relationship shifted to a different ground. In the Enlightenment period, rational understanding of religion and God paved the way for the emergence of a systematic discipline such as the philosophy of religion. Hegel's studies on philosophy of religion has led philosophy of religion to start gaining its independence from rational theology which is the field that resembles it most. The main framework of this article is the relationship between theology and the philosophy of religion. This relationship has been tried to be dealt with through Hegel and Tillich. The main purpose of this article is to analyze the relationship between theology and the philosophy of religion on the basis of two important names in the history of the philosophy of religion and try to reveal that these fields cannot be completely separated from each other as an intellectual effort. In addition, showing that these areas have a close and dialectical relationship with each other implicitly includes the other purpose of the study.
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Hurüfiyya emerged and developed in the religious-cultural environment of Khorasan. This philosophical thought system has spread in Anatolia, which has a rich ethnic structure and religious heritage. Hurüfism has left deep traces in the field of Ottoman culture and literature. The most prominent effect of this philosophical thought system has been seen in mystical circles. Therefore, this influence continued in the literary texts of the Bektashi path. Hurüfism accepts the holiness of letters and numbers. In this direction, it has made the principles of belief clear. This style essentially embodies the idea of Wahdat al- Wudjud. Just as human beings are at the center of the Wahdat al-Wudfud theory, there is also human in the centre of Hurüfiyya. The purpose of this thought is to bring the individual closer to the level of alInsan al-Kamil. Hurüfiyya was systematized by Fadl Allah Hurüfi. This system continued its influence in the Ottoman Empire until the 17th century. Except for those who went to extremes in defending this theory, the state did not seriously interfere with the Sufis who defended this idea. Divan of Bektashi Gul- Baba was the subject of this article in this context, because the thought of Hurüfiyya is very evident in the works of a Bektashi dervish Gul-Baba.
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The subject of this study is the concept of "expedition" which is a common concept in philosophy and sufism. The concept of expedition, in a close sense in both disciplines, expresses the intellectual and spiritual journeys of the person who turns to the truth, from internal to external and from external world (âfâk) to the inwardness (enfus). In philosophy, the concepts of expedition is the intellectual endeavours, mental researches, intellectual journeys and state "be on the way" that must be equipped on the path of eternal wisdom while seeking the knowledge and truth that man naturally longs for. In sufism, as a more basic and founding concept, expedition is a metaphor that implies both the inner transformations of the heart/soul that turn towards God and the truth, and the return of the human who came to the world from his original homeland, to his place or homeland. The aim of the study is to make a conceptual analysis of the metaphor of expedition, which is frequently used in philosophy and sufism, and to shed light on the concept of expedition from point of view where the two disciplines converge. The scope of the study will be limited to the thoughts of Ibn al-Arabi, one of the pioneers of theoretical sufism, and Mulla Sadra, one of the important post-classical period figures of Islamic philosophy, on this concept.
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The purpose of this article is to discuss the problematic grounding of immoral law and irreligious morality and to examine them with a different approach. Are the rules of morality and the rules of law the same? Can law without morals satisfy the human conscience? Is morality an obstacle to freedom? What is the source of morality? What is the relationship of morality with nature and religion? Can an atheistic person be moral, and can a religious person be immoral? Is it possible to ground morality with secular references? Around these and similar questions, we will discuss the possibility of immoral law and irreligious morality. In our article, we will try to analyse that immoral law will be inadequate to satisfy human conscience, and that morality can be grounded without religion or God in its source, which creates great difficulties. All these analyses will be presented in the philosophical and theological perspective in our article.
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The relationship between religion and morality is one of the most important issues in the philosophy of religion. In this study, the relation between religion and morality is examined through Islamic virtue ethics. Within this scope, at first, ten essential virtues are proposed according to their positions related to the self and the other. Justice, wisdom, moderation, and courage, which are the four basic virtues of the ten essential virtues, have been entitled as the initial virtues; sincerity, love, respect and trust, which are the four central virtues of the ten essential virtues, have been entitled as the process virtues, and finally compassion and generosity, which are the two superior virtues of the ten essential virtues, have been entitled as the result virtues. Afterwards, the Islamic background of these virtues was researched. Based on this research, justice, hikma (hidden cause), chastity, bravery, ikhlās (sincere commitment), fondness, takwā (piety), belief, mercy, and beneficence are proposed as the ten essential Islamic virtues. It is seen that Islamic virtues enrich and improve the meaning of humanistic virtues. As a result, it is deduced that religion and morality are independent but consistent, so the relationship between them is a free compatibility.
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Coined by the anthropologist E. B. Tylor (1832–1917), the term “animism” refers not to a type of religion but to a theory of religion. Asserting a minimal definition of religion as “belief in spiritual beings,” Tylor argued that religious belief originated in the primordial mistake of attributing life, soul, or spirit to inanimate objects. Although it has generally been dismissed in the academic study of religion as an obsolete term for describing the belief systems of indigenous people who hold that natural phenomena have souls or spirits, animism has nevertheless persisted in popular usage and academic theory to raise problems about the meaning and value of materiality in religion.
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Dünya tarihi üzerinde insanın dünya ile tarihi ilişkisi hakkında birçok bilgi bulunmakta ve bunların en çok yaygın olarak bilineni ise kutsal kitaplarda yer almaktadır. İnsanın dünya tarihinde başlangıcı olarak kabul edilen Âdem ile Havva’nın hikayesidir. Bu hikâye de insanın atası olarak bilinen Âdem ile Havva’nın anlatılan öyküsü şöyledir: Tanrı’nın yarattığı yabanıl hayvanların en kurnazı yılandı. Yılan kadına (Havva), “Tanrı gerçekten bahçedeki ağaçların hiçbirinin meyvesini yemeyin dedi mi?” diye sordu. Kadın, “Bahçedeki ağaçların meyvelerinden yiyebiliriz” diye yanıtladı, “ama Tanrı, bahçedeki ağacın meyvesini yemeyin, ona dokunmayın; yoksa ölürsünüz” dedi. Yılan “Kesinlikle ölmezsiniz” dedi, “Çünkü Tanrı biliyor ki, o ağacın meyvesini yediğinizde gözleriniz açılacak, iyiyle kötüyü bilerek Tanrı gibi olacaksınız.” Kadın ağacın güzel, meyvesinin yemek için uygun ve bilgelik kazanmak için çekici olduğunu gördü. Meyveyi koparıp yedi. Yanındaki kocasına da (Âdem) verdi, o da yedi. O zaman ikisinin de gözleri açıldı ve ikisi de çıplaklıklarını gördüler. İncir yapraklarını birbirine dikerek önlerini örttüler. (Yaratılış 3:1-7)
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Scientific advances that took place with the Renaissance and the Enlightenment behind it, has managed to attract a lot of attention. So with this result, modern science is accepted as the most reliable source of the knowledge and is placed on a ground where it can solve any problem. It is also said that science resolve the issue about whether God exists or not. At this stage, with the contribution of ideological approaches and some groundless illogical arguments exhibited in the name of religion, science has now been turned into a sacred institution. Science, which is transformed into a sacred, has become unable to meet another sacred religion on a common ground and a wrong dichotomy has been used. Thereby the advancing science has slowly started to "destroy God". Thise understanding of science became also the biggest support for the atheists. Although this understanding of science, which has turned into a sacred, and has emerged basically against the Christian faith, it has been tried to reflect locally on all beliefs. Whereas, waiting for the science to provide data that “God will be annihilated with the advancement of science” actually it makes it necessary to be unaware of the limits of the science. The discourse that faith will disappear with the advancement of science, it does not seems an acceptable argument in terms of Islam. Because Islam dynamically appeals to the reason and presents nature as evidence of God's existence.
More...O otkrivanju antropo-kozmološke cjelovitosti
Mir (salam) je vjerovatno najučestalija riječ mirećeg čovjeka (muslim). Izgovara je u susretu s drugim ljudima. Njome završava svoja klanjanja izlazeći iz usmjerenosti prema Ka’bi, okrećući se desno i lijevo. Na kraju klanjanja izgovora i riječi primljene od vjesnika Hvala: “Moj Bože, Ti si Mir i Mir je od Tebe, blažen si, vladaru veličine!”
More...Je li moguće da intelekt putnika ima očitu spoznaju teoloških istina?
U Prologu najprije se pitam je li moguće da intelekt putnika ima očitu spoznaju teoloških istina. Protiv toga: Očita spoznaja teoloških istina ne može se imati bez distinktne spoznaje božanstva utemeljene u vlastitom pojmu božanstva. Ali distinktna spoznaja božanstva nije moguća intelektu putnika, prema tome je i distinktna spoznaja teoloških istina nemoguća. Veća se premisa dokazuje: nedistinktna spoznaja božanstva nije dostatna. Jer, ako bi ona bila dostatna, bila bi nam tada moguća očita spoznaja iz čisto naravnih sposobnosti. Tada bi slijedilo da bismo mogli imati očitu spoznaju teoloških istina na temelju čisto naravnih sposobnosti, što je očito neistinito. Zbog toga se za očitu spoznaju teoloških istina traži distinktna spoznaja božanstva. Manja je premisa jasna: spoznaja božanstva na temelju adekvatnog pojma božanstva jest spoznaja koja usrećuje, jer je spoznaja beskonačnoga i usrećujućega predmeta pod usrećujućim aspektom. Ali, usrećujuća spoznaja nije moguća putniku, dakle, itd. Argumentiram na drugi način: ako bi intelekt putnika imao evidentnu spoznaju teoloških istina, njemu bi istine bile ili po sebi poznate ili po nečemu drugom njemu poznatijem. Ne na prvi način, jer bi se one tada spoznavale pošto su termini poznati. Ali takve propozicije, koje se po sebi spoznaju, spoznaju se od svakoga koji shvaća termine, i tako bi bile poznate svakome koji termine shvaća na naravan način, što je očito neistinito. Ni na drugi način, jer ono što bi čovjeku bilo poznatije: ili bi mu bilo naprosto poznato, ili pak po nečemu prethodnom. Ne na prvi način, jer nijedna propozicija nije prije one ‘Bog je trojstven i jedan’, jer ne postoji ništa srednje između Boga i triju osoba kojemu bi onaj predikat mogao biti unutarnji. Niti na drugi način, jer ništa što je poslije ne može voditi evidentnoj spoznaji propozicije ‘Bog je trojstven i jedan’; dakle, itd. Argumentiram na treći način: evidentna spoznaja istine najsavršenija je spoznaja koju je moguće imati o nekoj istini; ali takva spoznaja nije moguća putniku o onim istinama, jer tada blaženik ne bi mogao imati spoznaju o onim istinama savršeniju od spoznaje putnika, što je očito neistinito. O protivnome: Onaj koji može distinktno shvatiti termine neke nužne prve istine, tu istinu može spoznati evidentno, jer ako je prva, spoznaje se kad su termini spoznati. Ali putnik može distinktno spoznati, barem apstraktivno, termine propozicije ‘Bog je trojstven i jedan’. Moguće je, dakle, evidentno spoznati onu istinu i iz istoga razloga teološke istine koje nisu prve. Dakle, itd.
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Ockhamov latinski tekst preuzeo sam iz njemačkoga izdanja: Wilhelm von Ockham, Probleme der Metaphysik, Lateinisch-Deutsch, na njemački preveli te uvod i bilješke napisali Hans Kraml i Gerhard Leibold, Freiburg/Basel/Wien: Herder, 2012, str. 22-72.
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Covid-19 epidemic has resurfaced one of the most significant matters of religion philosophy, the problem of evil and its varieties. Although the problem of evil has a long history, it continues to be an agenda topic on discussion platforms. One of the main issues Atheists criticize Theists about is “evil”. However, they still don’t have a satisfactory answer regarding this very question. Concerning this issue, Philosophers are quite different. They absolutely have opinions about this problem. According to some, evil shall exist so that we can realise the great value of kindness, for some it’s necessary for the aesthetics of our universe and for some it’s a basic problem that seeks an answer. Here, in the context of evil we will re-examine the Covid-19 epidemic and different acts of evil (that comes along with it). Whatever the answers might be, the answer will always be seeked by masses. Another argument that keeps evil alive is “The God Issue”. In the context of this argument, we can state that there are criticisms that express the meaninglessness of God and there are criticisms that express the non-existence of God. In that respect, we must know that those who advocate religion’s meaningfulness are no less than those who criticise religion. In the context of Covid-19 discussions, God and all religions are being retargeted. The problem of evil is categorized into 3 different versions by philosophers and yet there are still different classifications. They’re natural, moral and metaphysical acts of evil. According to another classification, there are existential, logical and evidential acts of evil.
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Philosophical traditions of the classical period that Islamic philosophy is situated among them acknowledge friendship as an inborn characteristic that human nature necessitates and also one of the significant relationships that humans can develop. However, the place which friendship occupies in human life is not limited to this. Thus, the traditions in question argue for the idea that friendship is also a means for moral excellence. The role that friendship plays in moral excellence expresses itself notably in the link between friendship and virtue. This article investigates how the connection between friendship and virtue appears in the works by Rāghib al-Isfahānī (d. V./XIth Century), one of the Islamic moral philosophers from the early period. When the books of the philosopher are studied, several fundamental issues come to the fore. First of all, friendship is a value that approximates the agent to virtue, and furthermore, helps him pass beyond it. Nevertheless, it is stated that the phenomenon called friendship has more than one kind. And it is emphasized that among the relevant kinds only the ideal friendship relation, which the basis and goal of it are virtue, and for this reason, can be named “virtue-friendship”, carries a value from the moral point of view.
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Ibn Miskawayh (d. 428/1037) uses the concepts of emanation and creation without any tension between them in his works in which he deals with the problem of existence. This situation makes it difficult to understand which theory is choosen by him; the emanation or creation theory. This article aims to clarify the philosopher's basic approach to the existence of the universe. The study consists of three main parts. The first part contents the existential problems discussed before Ibn Miskawayh. In the second part, the subject of God and motion in the metaphysics of the philosopher is discussed. In the third chapter, the philosopher's concept of emanation and creation from nothing is discussed. The philosopher explains the order of existence of the universe in the framework of the circle of existence, where there is the first mind at one end and the first substance at the other. The focus of the philosopher is on the relationship between God and the first mind. He explains this relationship on the basis of two propositions. Firstly; creation out of nothing is possible, and everything that exists except God was created out of nothing. Latter; The first created being is the first mind, and this first mind brings into existence (ibda'/fayz) other beings with the potential given to it by God. The philosopher uses the concept of the ‘create’ (halq) only for God; also he uses the concepts of ibda' and fayz for the first mind as well as God. Accordingly, the philosopher's understanding of motion and emanation is in question for a field which the framework was drawn on the basis of the concept of creation.
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Today, when it comes to soul-body dualism, the view that comes to mind is the substance dualism that Descartes systematized. As the name suggests, this dualism implies that there are two different types of substances. Similarly, although Ibn Sīnā also adopted a kind of substance dualism by stating that the soul is a different type of substance than matter, his dualism differs from Descartes’ in important aspects. It can be said that the most important reason for this difference is that both ideas belong to different traditions. While Ibn Sīnā’s dualism carries the traces of Aristotelian hylomorphism, Cartesian thought is built on the post-Newtonian understanding of the mechanical universe. This significant difference has deeply affected soul-body conception of both philosophers. The aim of this study is to reveal the fundamental differences between the dualistic understandings of these philosophers in the context of soul-body. Thus, it will become clearer where the Avicennian dualism stands in terms of contemporary philosophy of mind. In this context, the first question to be addressed here is whether, according to both philosophers, the immaterial part of man means the same thing. The answer to this question is negative. The functions that Ibn Sīnā and Descartes attribute to the immaterial substance are quite different from each other. According to Descartes, it can be said that the soul is actually identical with the mind. Because, he describes the soul as the substance whose essence is to think. Here, Descartes is not only referring to theoretical calculations by thinking. It also includes phenomenal consciousness, that is, conscious phenomena, which is also called qualia in contemporary philosophy of mind. Thus, according to the Cartesian tradition, the fundamental distinction between soul/mind (the immaterial substance) and body is phenomenal consciousness: A thing is a soul only if it can have phenomenal consciousness. Whereas, Ibn Sīnā does not see phenomenal consciousness, which is the most basic function that the present Cartesian dualist tradition attributes to the soul, as the basic function of the immaterial substance. In fact, he does not even see it as a function of the human nafs. In other words, according to him, the main function of the human nafs is not to feel/experience or to have phenomenal consciousness. Such functions can also be performed by animals that do not have an immaterial substance. According to Ibn Sīnā, the main functions of the human soul are theoretical or universal thinking and being self-conscious. One of the places where this distinction can be seen most clearly is their thoughts about animal souls. Both philosophers argue that animals do not have an immaterial substance in addition to their material bodies. However, while this means that animals are unconscious automatons for one philosopher (Descartes), it does not mean anything like that for the other. Because, according to Avicenna, an immaterial substance is not necessary to have consciousness or feeling. However, according to Descartes, for a being to be conscious or sentient requires it to have an immaterial substance. Since animals do not have such (substantial) souls, Descartes saw them as unconscious robots. Another point where the same difference can be observed is an argument put forward by Avicenna to prove this immaterial substance, which he addresses as the human soul. According to Avicenna’s argument, the existence of an immaterial substance is necessary for man’s access to universal knowledge, not for having consciousness. However, according to the argument used in the Cartesian tradition and known as the unity of consciousness argument, the existence of immaterial substance is necessary for the unity of consciousness (not knowledge). The aim of this study is to reveal the basic differences between the dualistic understandings of these philosophers in the context of soul and body. In order to reveal these differences, the following points will be discussed: The question of whether animals are conscious and Avicenna’s argument mentioned above. Because the differences in the handling of these two issues by both philosophers will guide us to reveal the fundamental differences in their dualistic understanding. In this study, it will be argued that the dualistic understanding of Avicenna and Descartes in the context of soul-body are radically different from each other, especially over these two issues.
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In his article, the author gives a brief classification of various texts of religious rules, which are usually associated with authorship or rather name of St. Aurelius Augustinus. The aim of the article is mainly to classify and explain the individual titles of these texts (Ordo monasterii, Praeceptum, event. Praeceptum longius, Regularis informatio, Regula recepta).
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