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There is no law making without law writing. Creating an act of law means organizing (coding) a rule into a strictly designed form. That form and the knowledge of coding allows a reader to extract rules from statues. The knowledge necessary for law writing includes but is not limited to the following elements of acts of law: statues, directives, editing, text structure, rules for amending and unifying etc. Development of legislative techniques and quality control in law writing are necessary to provide high quality law that citizens can trust.
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Genetic modifications of organisms arouse a lot of controversy. Some people consider them to be beneficial for the future of the world, others, on the contrary, see them as a series of threats. For this reason, the function of the State is important, through creating specific regulations, controls the flow of GMO products on its territory. There are doubts, whether the regulations sufficiently protect the domestic market against uncontrolled flow of genetically modified products. Also the question remains if the scope of norms is sufficient, and the use of GMOs is appropriate for the safety of the environment.
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The author analyses the design and imposition of the bank levy that came into effect on the 1st of February 2016 both from the economic and legal perspective. The author portrays its origin as well as the main solutions. The risks connected with their implementation involving the capacity to collect the tax are outlined. The author also presents the development of the design of taxation of the banking sector in Poland in the past dozen or more years. The author conducts a comparative analysis of the various tax designs that prove effective in many E. U. Member States. This allows to show the similarities and tell the differences between the various state-specific designs and the ones adopted in Poland. The paper is also concerned with the consequences that the bank levy might bring about in Poland. The author postulates that the analysis of its design flaws makes it possible to evade taxation. The author puts forward alternative concepts, which would make the provisions of the law more precise. The bank levy applicable in Poland has also been subject to an in-depth analysis in the context of tax avoidance.
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The idea of the European Public Prosecutor dates from the 1990 s. Since then, the work on the creation of the foundations of the European Penal Code is associated with the necessity to strengthen the protection of the financial interests of the European Union, in particular the need to combat offences against those interests. Initially the Code seemed to be a purely theoretical concept that cannot be implemented into the EU legislative action because of the existing rules of conferral of powers and the lack of a legal basis for the establishment of such an office. However, with the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon the situation has changed, particularly with the addition of the Article 86 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). As a result, the European Commission presented in July 2013 a draft regulation which should serve as a basis for establishment of the European Prosecutor Office [COM(2013) 534 final]. The aim of this paper is to present and briefly analyse major provisions of the proposed regulation, as well as objections submitted by national parliaments and doctrine, and finally the prospects of further work on the project. The discussion has not been yet completed because the draft has not been formally adopted yet and probably in the proposed form will not be accepted by all Member States, which will result in the implementation of the enhanced cooperation procedure.
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The proposed bill contains a new solution regarding “including information on the proposed amount of gross salary” (or indicating the so-called pay range) in the offers of employment for an employee in a given position. Some of the proposed provisions may be controversial or require additional analysis due to their possible effects or possible interpretational problems. The bill will not have direct consequences for public finances, however, it may have social and economic effects as well as financial effects of a microeconomic scope.
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The constitutional complaint refers to the provision of the Act concerning bearing costs of the appeal procedure in certain circumstances borne by the appellant, if the appeal in part of the charges, which the contracting authority did not take into account, had been dismissed by the National Appeals Chamber. In the position of the Sejm, it was proposed to discontinue the proceedings due to an inadmissibility to deliver a judgment. If the dismissal of the proceedings had not been taken into account, the Sejm proposes to state that the challenged provisions conform to the Constitution.
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The position of the Sejm refers to application of the Marshal of the Sejm initiating proceedings before the Constitutional Tribunal. The position of the Sejm it was stated that the questioned provision of the Act – Electoral Code, in so far as it limits the competence of the Marshal of the Sejm to change the date of presidential elections after an occurrence of unpredictable, extraordinary circumstances hindering or preventing the holding of elections on the originally scheduled date, is unconstitutional. According to the applicant, the challenged provision violates the Constitution because it introduces additional, non-constitutional deadlines binding the Marshal of the Sejm in ordering elections to the office of the President of the Republic of Poland. It also excludes the constitutional competence of the Marshal of the Sejm to change the date of these elections and limits the possibility of ordering presidential elections by indicating a statutory holiday.
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For legal science, which is part of the socio-humanitarian unit of science and, at the same time, is internally differentiated into relatively independent branches of scientific knowledge, the question of determining its own object is important both in terms of preserving its disciplinary status, and to ensure the integrity and consistency of knowledge within the aforementioned block. At the same time, the general tendency to blurring the boundaries of scientific disciplines in the direction of their convergence and interpenetration, the strengthening of interdisciplinary ties, in our opinion, predetermines the leveling of the value of the category "object of legal science". In this regard, we consider it necessary to outline some philosophical and legal aspects of its study. In the domestic general theory of legal science, the problem of determining the object of legal science tried to solve in the 70 years of the twentieth century. It was during this period that a precise and specific definition of the subjects of certain branches of scientific legal knowledge arose.
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The author explores the relevant problems of the classification of the forensic examinations on various grounds and the value of classifications for the administration of justice in the science article. The author pays the special attention to the classification of the forensic examinations by the substantive grounds. The article draws attention to the fact that until recently the classification of the forensic examinations was carried out on the basis of those sciences the methods of which were used for researching of a certain set of objects, in particular, the author critically analyzes the attribution of certain types of the examinations, in particular of the linguistic, of the examination of materials and substances, of the examination of special technical means of the secretly obtaining information to the forensic ones. The attention is drawn to the fact that the integration and the differentiation that occur in modern science, affect the formation and use of the methods and tools of the expert research, affecting also the scope of their application – the specific types and kinds of the forensic examination, their nature and, as a consequence, the classification of the forensic examinations.
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This paper examines Adolf Reinach’s views about negative states of affairs. The author briefly presents the history of the issue from the Middle Ages to the 20th century. The views of Reinach and Roman Ingarden are compared. A special focus is ascribed to the problem of omissions in the legal sense. According to the author, a proper solution to the problem of negative states of affairs locates negation at the level of language, not in reality.
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Is it possible to affirm the existence of eidetic a priori laws, if these laws can be contradicted by positive law propositions? How is it possible a deviation from a priori juridical propositions? These are the two questions to which the present paper “Deviation without contradiction in Adolf Reinach’s ontology” is devoted. The aim of the paper is to analyse the relations between a priori juridical propositions and propositions of positive law as investigated by Adolf Reinach. The Author presents and illustrates Adolf Reinach’s conception of conditioned a priori connections.
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We almost every day direct our actions with reference to social, moral or legal norms and oughts. However, oughts and norms cannot be perceived through the senses: how can we “grasp” them, then? Adolf Reinach distinguishes enacted norms and oughts created through a social act of enactment, from moral norms and oughts existing in themselves independently of any act, knowledge or experience. I argue that this distinction is not a distinction between two species of oughts within a common genus: it is rather a deeper ontological distinction between two modes of existence that are quite different, even though both are objective, according to Reinach. This ontological distinction is reflected in the way in which enacted oughts and moral oughts can be grasped, respectively: in the former case, the enacted ought is grasped by going back to the underlying social act from which it springs; in the latter, a “grasping through feeling” (fühlende Erfassen) of the moral values is implied.
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In the Logical Investigations, Edmund Husserl defines that which is normative as the objectively regular with its rules of regularity, which can be recognised rationally – normativity concerns the being itself and the rational cognition of the being (logic as a normative discipline establishing the rules of scientific knowledge, as the science of science). Instead, Adolf Reinach in The Apriori Foundations of the Civil Law defines the notion of norm as polysemantic and distinguishes the legal provisions (the prescriptive sentences), formulated within a given community, from the basic norms which are grounded in the objective (including moral) justness of the states of affairs. The obligation of the being and the obligation of acting exist in themselves, independently from cognition. In turn, “enactments and the propositions which express enactments” as a kind of normative sentences have the character of normalisation, but they require a person to pronounce them. The prescriptions realise and refer to what is objectively being and to the objectivity of what is being and obligatory. In my text, I present Reinach’s position on the relations between norms and provisions (as prescriptive propositions “which express enactments”) referring his theories to the Husserlian concept of normativity.
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When speaking about legitimizing law we can mainly mean analysis which concerns metaphysical justification for what is called the phenomenon of law. From the metaphysical point of view, the justification of law means indicating the foundation of its existence. It is about seeking (indicating) an esse (essence) basis of law, in line with the task set by the metaphysical analysis, namely seeking an answer to the question: Why does object X exist? And in the answer, there will appear a formula indicating the final reasons for its existence (ratio essendi). The same ideas that we can find in Adolf Reinach’s principal work, The Apriori Foundations of the Civil Law, provide a possibility of better understanding this important issue of legal philosophy, namely the question of legitimizing law (justifying law). The aim of this article is to present that argument.
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This contribution centers on the notions of property and nuda potestas in Reinach’s philosophy of law. I aim to demonstrate how both terms ground an important part of Reinach’s understanding of a priori condition for civil rights. Consequently, I assess the principle of property with a comparison to Luis de Molina, since he shows in his De Iustitia et Iure how dominium and rights justify some forms of property (lay and ecclesiastical) and political power (Molina 1659, disp2 n1; Kaufmann 2014, 129). Hence, the right of the person is discussed by following the potestas. In Die apriorischen Grundlagen des bürgerlichen Rechtes, Reinach implicitly refers to the nuda potestas, which is a kind of power that can be applied only formally and not in fact to something else and for that reason, it can only be caught a priori, since acts are performed by another person within it. This is the reason why the rights of a person can be divided between more people, and it is at first just a kind of property, which can be exercised upon the individual. Consequently, I divide my contribution as follows. First, in considering the social act, I show how its characteristics of Anspruch and Verbindlichkeit result from the commitment that human beings make to one another. In doing this, I discuss the particular condition of slavery through which it is possible to find the property and the nuda potestas since there is no enjoyment of the good to which it refers. Second, I apply both concepts by showing a parallel with Luis de Molina. This comes about in consideration of the case of dominium, in which absolute rights can be ascribed to their relative claim. Third and finally, I offer a critique of Reinach, in which I show how absolute rights and relative claims cannot be assimilated.
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Adolf Reinach met and befriended Hermann Kantorowicz in one of Lujo Brentano’s political economy seminars during the 1901/1902 academic year at the University of Munich. After Munich, Kantorowicz would go on to be a major contributor to the Free Law Movement (Freirechtsbewegung) in Germany and play an important role in the development of the sociology of law in the 20th century. Reinach encountered the work of Edmund Husserl while studying with Lipps and later became central to the phenomenological movement in Göttingen. But all the while he remained interested in and focused on issues related to justice. His last scholarly publication before leaving for battle in WWI, Die apriorischen Grundlagen des bürgerlichen Rechtes (The a priori Foundations of Civil Law, 1913) published in the very first edition of the Jahrbuch für Philosophie und phänomenologische Forschung (Yearbook for Philosophy and Phenomenological Research) is a testament to this. Here we see Reinach taking his phenomenological education and applying it to entities of justice. I believe Kantorowicz inspired this lasting interest in matters of justice. This essay will focus on the influence of Kantorowicz on Reinach, and while doing so attempt to flesh out and contrast the ways in which these two men sought to overcome the problems of justice (Recht) of their time. Many of these problems still continue to be relevant today.
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In his original phenomenology of law Adolf Reinach distinguishes among experiences the so-called “social acts”. These include acts directed towards other persons that require that the latter acknowledge the communicated contents and assume certain attitudes. Among these acts Reinach mentions there are promises, orders, requests and questions. He argues the promise is the special act that creates the a priori grounds of law. It is to be noted that Reinach’s phenomenology of law is of static character (in the Husserlian sense of the word) and therefore it shares all its advantages and disadvantages. In my paper I would like to draw attention to another social act, which can also be attributed to certain law-making activities, especially from the perspective of the genetic phenomenology. It is questioning. At the same time when Reinach was working on his theory of law, his Munich friend, Johannes Daubert (1877–1947), also a student of Theodor Lipps and a friend of Edmund Husserl, who together with Reinach made an “invasion of the Munichs at Göttingen”, worked on the first phenomenology of the question. Although he did not refer his research to the phenomenon of law, we can ask whether, like Reinach’s deliberations about promises and obligation, it cannot be done. That this is possible to some extent, for example, is evinced by the Hannah Arendt and Klaus Held’s phenomenology of the political world. He points out that the public world as such arises from the primordial openness of man, understood as “zoon politikon”. This openness might be interpreted as the question which is not so much a single act as it is an attitude. The purpose of the paper is to outline how, while starting with the phenomenological reflection over various types of utterances, one can specify their certain forms and the acts constituting them as well as the attitudes which allow for a priori grounding the phenomenon of law from the perspective of static and genetic phenomenology.
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The originality of Cossio’s works is expressed by a strong relationship between philosophy of law and his philosophical assumptions. The starting point for deliberating on law are widely recognized ontological and epistemological contentions. Cossio justifies his legal theses basing them on his philosophical views. Egology derives from Edmund Husserl’s phenomenology which is related to some elements of William Dilthey’s philosophy of culture. Martin Heiddeger’s and Immanuel Kant’s philosophies are the basis too. The first part describes Cossio’s ontologies of subjects otherwise known as regional ontologies. Methods for examining the above subjects and gnoseological acts are presented here too. The second part presents the characteristics of law as a cultural subject. The article is not only a report. Its aim is also to show that Carlos Cossio’s legal philosophy is semantic in character.
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Notarial activity is a specific legal form of legal activity, within which the notary carries out the application of legal norms through the exercise of jurisdictional powers on indisputable matters. The quality of notarial acts depends on the competence, good faith, and honesty of the notary. The purpose of the article is to conduct a comprehensive scientific analysis of the formation of the institution of notary oath from the initiation of the notary service board to the present time. It gives the opportunity to deeper understand the peculiarities of the development of the institution of notary oath and the notariate in general. The author uses general scientific and special research methods. The basis of the study are the following methods: historical and legal, structural and functional, comparative and method of complex analysis. The author states that the institution of notarial oath originates from ancient times, confirmation of which is the norms of the Byzantine "Book of Eparch".
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