Adverbs as evidentials: an English-Spanish contrastive analysis of twelve adverbs in spoken and newspaper discourse

Author(s): Marta Carretero,Juana I. Marín-Arrese,Julia Lavid-López / Language(s): English / Issue: 70/2017

This paper presents a contrastive analysis of six English evidential adverbs ending in -ly with their Spanish nearest translation equivalents, in spoken and newspaper discourse. The adverbs may be associated with varying degrees of reliability: high (clearly/claramente, evidently/evidentemente, obviously/obviamente), medium (apparently/al parecer) and low (seemingly/aparentemente, supposedly/supuestamente). The analysis is based on tokens of authentic language extracted from two contemporary corpora, the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) and the Corpus de Referencia del Español Actual (CREA). The qualitative analysis focuses on the evidential functions of the adverbs and on their pragmatic interactional uses; the quantitative analysis centres on the relative frequency of type of evidential functions and the clausal position of the adverbs. The results uncover a number of differences between the English adverbs and their Spanish correlates and also between the two discourse types. Practically all the adverbs are strongly specialized in expressing either indirect-inferential or indirect-reportative evidentiality. English obviously and Spanish evidentemente show a high frequency of cases of loss of evidential meaning due to pragmaticalization, specifically in spoken discourse. Regarding position, the English adverbs are more frequent in medial clausal position, while some Spanish adverbs are often found in the more prominent parenthetical position.

Aegyptio-Afroasiatica XI

Author(s): Gábor Takács / Language(s): English / Issue: 4/2005

The long-range series “Aegyptio-Afroasiatica”is devoted to the publication of new Afro-Asiatic etymologies of Egyptian lexical roots which have been identified in the course of my research on the “Etymological Dictionary of Egyptian”(EDE, Leiden, Brill, published since 1999). The underlying consonant correspondences the proposed etymologies are based on have been elaborated and demonstrated in EDE I. The numeration of the etymological entries in the present contribution continues that of the previous parts.

Aegyptio-Afroasiatica XXIII

Author(s): Gábor Takács / Language(s): German / Issue: 2/2010

New Afro-Asiatic parallels are suggested for Egyptian lexical roots continued from the previous communications.

AEGYPTIO-AFROASIATICA XXV

Author(s): Gábor Takács / Language(s): English / Issue: 3/2012

During my current work on the Egyptian Etymological Word Catalogue (EEWC, ongoing since summer 1994), it has become possible to identify a great number of new lexical correspondences between Egyptian and its vast Afro-Asiatic (Semito-Hamitic) kindred. The series of papers “AegyptioAfroasiatica” has been started in 1995 for reporting these results. The numbering of etymological entries is continuous beginning from my very first report.

Agape vastete kujunemisest eesti piiblitõlgetes

Author(s): Sven-Erik Soosaar / Language(s): Estonian / Issue: 61/2015

The development of the lexicon and conceptual system of Estonian has been influenced by the translation of Bible into Estonian. In order to achieve a more precise translation, new words were created either by means of borrowings or derivation using extant word stems. One of the central concepts in Christianity is agape (love), which was translated in early Estonian texts mostly by the word ‘arm’, which was a word with a rather broad meaning. During the Bible translation in the beginning of the 18th century, a new term ‘armastus’ was derived from the same-stem verb ‘armastama’, as an exact counterpart for Greek agape. In the later development of Estonian, the meaning of this term expanded. In the article, the development of Estonian counterparts of agape and the closely related concepts charis and eleos are examined with the comparisons of Latin and German terms, which were languages also used in Estonia during the missionary work and Bible translation.

AKADEMİK ÇALIŞMALAR IŞIĞINDA RUS DİLİNDE TÜRKÇENİN İZLERİ

Author(s): Ergali ESBOSINOV / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 40/2018

Nowadays, Turkic languages are world languages with more than 600 thousand words, which roots date back to the early estimates of history. In the background of the fact that Turkic people are so widespread and then influencing other languages, these languages are strong languages of political administration, rich in phonetic structure and literary power. Slavonic languages and Turkic languages associations started in the first century. Scientists classify these associations according to many historical circles. The first period is estimated to be І-VІІІ centuries. The Avars, which lie between the Slavs living in the Eastern European regions and the Huns, are the economic relations between the Khazars and the Bulgarians living in the banks of the Edil River. In this age, Slavic tribes generally passed names, places and water (river) names. Second cycle is ІХ-ХІІ centuries. According to some Turkologists, this periodical Turkic quotation words are of Kipchak language.

Akanie jako środek stylizacji językowej w powieściach litewskich Józefa Weyssenhoffa

Author(s): Magdalena Płusa / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 34 (39)/2018

Józef Weyssenhoff (1860–1932) was a Polish writer who dedicated to Kaunas, Lithuania two of the most significant novels in his literary output – “Unia” (1910) and “Soból i panna” (1912), often called “Lithuanian novels”. He was deeply emotionally connected with this region since he was a child. Both these texts constitute a valuable source of knowledge concerning the status of regional variant of Polish language and its formal characteristics that were used in the ground-breaking decades of the 19th and 20th century. These characteristics were used by the writer as a means of masterly conducted linguistic stylization. Among the presented by Weyssenhoff’s linguistic facts characteristic for Northern Borderlands there can be found a process called ‘akanie’ what basically means the pattern of pronouncing unstressed vowels /e/ and /o/ as /a/. Which of the peculiar indicators concerning the specific vowel pronunciation is evidenced in the studied texts (phonetic parameter or a phenomenon that has experienced morphological processes)? How do they serve as a means of linguistic stylization? The following article presents a brief description of the peculiar process called ‘akanie’ which was known to Józef Weyssenhoff from Kaunas, Lithuania and which he then deliberately introduced in his two novels as a function of a literary manifestation.

Akcenat glagola u sarajevskom govoru u odnosu na mostarski govor i bosanski standardni jezik

Author(s): Jasmin Hodžić / Language(s): Bosnian / Issue: 78-79/2017

Savremeni bosanski jezik, za razliku od crnogorskog, hrvatskog i srpskog jezika, još uvijek najbolje čuva klasični standardni akcenatski sistem. On je dat prema progresivnim novoštokavskim govorima koji su poslužili kao osnovica nekadašnjeg srpskohrvatskog standarda i koji se tradicionalno već naziva Vuk-Daničićev akcenatski sistem. Prema tom sistemu bosanski standard, kao i bosanski govori pojedinačno, prave i određene minimalne otklone, a koji opet nisu takve naravi da bi sistem doveli u pitanje. U vezi s navedenim nije nimalo nebitno da su bosanskohercegovački govori u izrazito preovladavajućoj mjeri novoštokavski.

Ako hovorí slovenská mládež v Maďarsku a na Slovensku v súčasnosti? (Bilingválna reflexia)

Author(s): Mária Homišinová / Language(s): Slovak / Issue: 1/2015

The intention of this paper is to present the empirical research results of the Slovak youth lingual-communication behavior in Slovakia and Hungary, whereas this research work was performed in both countries in the year 2010. Expressions of a spoken form of the Slovak language in surroundings were investigated, which is typical for the application of the written language as a form of a social contact in school – with friends, peers, and in family. The referential framework of this article consists of three analytical levels: 1. the analysis of the knowledge level of the Slovak and Hungarian language (in the case of the Slovak language, its lingual appearances are analyzed); 2. intergeneration relations of lingual communication; 3. the analysis of mutual contexts (the dependence on identification signs)

Ako vníma materinský jazyk slovenská mládež v Maďarsku a na Slovensku? (Etnolingvistická reflexia)

Author(s): Mária Homišinová / Language(s): Slovak / Issue: 2/2015

The intention of this paper is to present the empirical research results of the Slovak youth lingual-communication behavior in Slovakia and Hungary, whereas this research work was performed in both countries in the year 2010. Expressions of a spoken form of the Slovak language were investigated in surroundings which are typical for the application of the written language as a form of a social contact in school: with friends, peers, and in the family. The referential framework of this paper consists of three levels of analysis: 1. the analysis of communication skills in Slovak and Hungarian; 2. the analysis of the evaluation of life values; 3. the correlation of these parameters: language communication skills versus the perception of ethnic values (mother tongue).

Aktywność słowotwórcza a zjawisko zapożyczeń na przykładzie czasowników dwuaspektowych (w ujęciu polsko-słowackim)

Author(s): Halina Mieczkowska / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 50/2015

The conducted analysis of dual aspect verbs (based on selected linguistic material) and contrasting them with the state observed a quarter or half century ago do not show interdependencies between the existence of the group of genetically foreign dual aspect verbs – which are very limited and virtually relic in Polish but definitely more frequent in Slovakian – and a strong trend for word borrowing. On the contrary, the observed linguistic increase in prefixed oppositional units of perfective aspect indicates that more significant impact on their development and functioning is exerted by the established word formation technique as well as the lexical and grammatical structure of the native language.

Akvizityviniai veiksmažodžiai gauti ir tekti senuosiuose XVI–XVII a. lietuvių kalbos raštuose

Author(s): Erika Jasionytė-Mikučionienė / Language(s): Lithuanian / Issue: 67/2015

The present paper deals with the verbs gauti ‘get’ and tekti ‘be gotten’ as a means of acquisitive modality in the 16th–17th century texts of Old Lithuanian. The realizations of acquisitive modality in Old Lithuanian have not been examined yet. Thus, the aim of the paper is to explore the use of the verbs gauti ‘get’ and tekti ‘be gotten’ in the selected Old Lithuanian texts and to discuss the potential direction of the development of their modal meanings. The study of the Old Lithuanian writings shows that both verbs gauti ‘get’ and tekti ‘be gotten’ are most frequently used as non-modal verbs in Old Lithuanian. The verb gauti ‘get’ typically comes in personal constructions, while the verb tekti ‘be gotten’ appears in impersonal as well as personal constructions. The Lithuanian verbs under consideration denote acquisition in the constructional patterns with NP as their grammatical object. However, the thorough analysis of the verbs in the selected texts also reveals evidence of their modal use. The modal meanings of the verbs under study are prominent in constructions with an infinitival complement. Both acquisitive verbs allow modal readings with transitive as well as intransitive verb complements. Gauti ‘get’ functions as a modal verb more frequently than tekti ‘be gotten’. The few modal instances of the latter have been found only in non-original texts. Moreover, the verb tekti ‘be gotten’ can express participant-external modality only (possibility or necessity). However, since the examples of modal tekti ‘be gotten’ come from the translations from Polish, the influence of the source language should not be overlooked. In contrast, the verb gauti ‘get’ functions as a modal verb in both original and non-original Lithuanian texts, and it expresses actualized possibility, participant-internal and participant-external possibility. It was noticed that the participant-external use is more frequent than the participant-internal one. Since in Contemporary Lithuanian gauti ‘get’ is specialized for expressing participant-external modality, we may assume that participant-internal possibility might have disappeared over time. It is also worth to note that in the texts under analysis gauti ‘get’ does not display the modal meaning of necessity, which is a frequent use of the verb in Contemporary Lithuanian. Thus, its meaning of modal necessity may have developed later than the meaning of possibility. Moreover, it has been observed that gauti ‘get’ typically occurs as a modal verb in the texts published in Minor Lithuania.

Albanian Etymological Notes (Balkan Etymologies 146—185)*

Author(s): Vladimir Orel / Language(s): English / Issue: 6/1996

Albanisch, Romanisch und Rumänisch

Author(s): Henrik Barić / Language(s): German / Issue: 1/1956

Seit der Wendung, die in den albanischen Sprachstudien dank Pedersens gründlicher Revision der Meyer’schen Auffassung, dass das Albanische eine halbromanische Sprache sei, eingetreten und der Leitsatz für das Albanische Erklärungsmöglichkeiten in erster Linie im Albanischen selbst zu suchen zum völligen Durchbruch gekommen ist, gilt die linguistische Erforschung auf diesem Gebiete in der Hauptsache seinem indogermanischen Grundstock. [...]

Albanische und Albanisch-Rumänische Wortstudien

Author(s): Henrik Barić / Language(s): German / Issue: 2/1961

Alb. akól »Diener, Knappe« kann bestimmt nicht mit G. Meyer , Wörterb. der alb. Spr. 6 zu anklingendem, aus dem südslav, okolo »ringsherum« entlehntem alb. akole, okol gestellt werden; mögen auch die beiden Bedeutungen durch die semantische Zwischenstufe in griech. »circumversans« vermitteln, entschieden spricht gegen diese Zusammenstellung der Unterschied in den l-Lauten: bei okol ein l, bei akól ein l-Laut. [...]

Albanistika u radovima jugoslovenskih naučnika i neki njeni problemi

Author(s): Idriz Ajeti / Language(s): Serbian / Issue: 17/1978

Ovaj kratak pregled onoga što je postignuto u jugoslovenskoj albanistici obuhvata period od kraja prošlog veka do naših dana. A to je vreme kada indoevropske komparativne studije uzimaju snažan zamah po evropskim lingvističkim središtima. Interesovanje za albanološke lingvističke probleme može se pratiti u radovima pojedinih jugoslovenskih naučnika koji u svojim naučnim prilozima posebnu pažnju poklanjaju albanološkim problemima, ističući pri tom osobenosti arbanaškog jezika, koji igra značajnu ulogu u razrešavanju brojnih ključnih pitanja u balkanskoj lingvistici. [...]

Albansko-srpskohrvatske jezičke studije

Author(s): Idriz Ajeti / Language(s): Serbian / Issue: 8/1970

Même actuellement, les études concernant les rapports albano-slaves ne font pas l’objet d’une synthèse, elles n’amorcent toujours que le début. Dans les rangs, d’ailleurs restreints, de ceux qui s’occupent des rechercher concernant les rapports albano-slaves, se trouve aussi l’auteur de ce travail qui publia ces dernières années les études suivantes: «Les rapports linguistiques entre l’albanais et le serbe«, Bulletin des études scientifiques de la Faculté des lettres de Prishtina, (1963); »Contribution à l’étude des rapports linguistiques entre l’albanais et le serbe«. Recherches albanologiques (2 Prishtinë 1965); «Études lexicologiques albano- -slaves». Recherches albanologiques- (2, 1968) etc... Cette fois-ci, l’auteur a pour l’objet de ses études quelques résultats auquels il est parvenu les derniers temps. Il parle d’une expression balkanique particulièrement discutable; il s’agit du mot magar que l’on rencontre dans la langue albanaise aussi bien que dans les autres langues balkaniques. Le mot en question apporte un nouveau matériel qui concerne en particulier la langue albanaise. L’auteur tâche d’illustrer et de parvenir à l’origine du mot Ber; c’est le nom d’ un village dans la région de Leshan du Monténégro; le mot en question l’auteur le met en rapport avec l’appellatif du mot albanais b e r r (mounton ou brébis, bouc ou chèvre). Ensuite l’auteur traite le toponyme Brinje qu’on rencontre si souvent dans de différentes zones du Monténégro. Dans le domaine de la toponymie du Monténégro, l’auteur traite surtout le toponyme Shaljeza que l’on rencontre également dans le territoire de l’Albanie Shalë - z a ; l’auteur mentionne les mots Štek, Steci, Zaštek; ensuite le nom Rogami ; Suka, Gropa: il remarque ensuite le toponyme Shestan. L’objet de ses études est ici particulièrement quelques appellatifs propres à l’albanais aussi qu’au langage serbe des parlers monténégrins: djekalica, djekarica, djekna, djekati, djekanje correspondant à l’albanais gjëkim, gjëkoj . On étudie ensuite le mot djola = vrtača, en albanais gjollë = «où l’on donne à manger le sel aux bêtes». Dans la zone de la Kosovo le verbe êknuti = frapper, taper, battre, heurter, lancer violemment, que l’on rencontre dans les dialectes serbes se rapporte aux verbes albanais hjek, hek, me hjekë. Dans le domaine de la terminologie pastorale l’auteur indique l’appellatif përc, serb. prë. On traite le mot dega. tise, degam se = svadjati se, glasno se prepirati , alb. degatem ; degame . On fait la recherche du verbe dešati se, prés dešam se qui veut dire se rencontrer avec qqn.; sresti se, naći se; en albanais on rencontre: ndesh, meundeshë . L’auteur s’occupe de l’origine du mot kërcu - ri, kërcu - niet du roum. et serbocr. cräciun, kraëun.

Algirdo Landsbergio kritika: lietuvių–lenkų kultūrų dialogas

Author(s): Laimutė Adomavičienė / Language(s): Lithuanian / Issue: 35(40)/2019

Algirdas Landsbergis (1924–2004) was one of the few critics whose erudition, creative intentions, comparative education, language proficiency and international competence and activities, provided opportunities to transcend the boundaries of the Lithuanian literature, avoiding the “provinciality” of literature. The article analyses the critique of Landsbergis literature and theatre-related to Polish culture. The chosen research of this part of the criticism texts is innovative because it has not been studied in more detail. The critic’s mission – to evaluate the Polish and Lithuanian literature in the context of Central-Eastern Europe – is highlighted in the criticism articles, reviews and annotations published in 1969–1998. The analysis of criticism texts allowed to highlight the dialogue between Lithuanian and Polish literature and cultures. In criticism relating to Polish culture, here viewed the latest works by Polish-speaking writers, mostly their translations, in order to evaluate the aesthetic value, structure, style of the work, to describe the writer’s growth, the place of his work in the context of peer-reviewed author’s creative works or in Polish literature (the basis of comparison is the Lithuanian literature or literature of other Middle East European countries). In this way, the critic performed an educational mission – introducing the addressee (a Lithuanian emigrant and Lithuanian behind the Iron Curtain) to the situation of the Middle East European region or the world culture, and literature; encouraged to resist the Soviet regime.

Alternatiivseid etümoloogiaid I

Author(s): Lembit Vaba / Language(s): Estonian / Issue: 60/2014

The article presents alternative etymologies for the Estonian words koost ‘(wooden) spoon’ and kaugas ‘men’s shirt breast with a double waist, used as a pocket; wallet’ and the Northern Finnic word represented by Finnish kaukalo ‘trough’. The word koost is found primarily on the western Estonian islands. Julius Mägiste has proposed a Russian etymology for it, as a borrowing based on *kopusta ‘mixing tool’. Mägiste’s Russian etymology presumes the phonological development chain *kopusta > *koβusta > *kovosta > koost, proposed specifically for this case, which is implausible. Koost is most likely of Baltic origin, from a loan base the successors of which are lithuanian kaũstė / kaustė̃ ‘vessel hollowed out from a tree trunk, drinking horn’, latvian kaũšķins ‘ladle’ etc. Upon its borrowing, the Baltic au was replaced by ou, which later developed into a long ō. this kind of substitution and phonological development is characteristic of livonian, where vowels are in quantitative and mostly also qualitative paradigmatic alternation, including ou : ō. The borrowing has presumably come to Estonian via Livonian, where it is no (longer) recorded. Although the presumed Baltic loan base lacks phonological features of diagnostic value, the word’s geographical distribution indicates that it could have been borrowed from Curonian. The proposed connection between kaugas ‘men’s shirt breast with a double waist, used as a pocket; wallet’ and latvian kabata ‘pocket’ requires a remarkably complicated phonological adaptation for a relatively recent borrowing and is unconvincing. kaugas is most likely an older Baltic loan, having originated from the stem *kauk-, the possible Indo-European archetype of which is *(s)keu- / *kou- ‘to make curved, curved, hollow, cavity’ and/or *(s)keu- ‘to cover (up), wrap (up)’. The members of this large and diverse Baltic word family include Lithuanian káukė ‘mask, face cover, gas mask’, kiáuklas / kiáukutas ‘cover, shell’, káukė ‘mortar, wooden ladle, dish, basin etc.’, kaukẽlė ‘wooden dish’ and others. kaugas does not denote a pocket on a garment in today’s meaning. A pocket woven/sewn into a piece of clothing is a sufficiently new phenomenon that the Baltic loan base could not possibly have carried that meaning. Among the oldest forerunners of pockets was a piece of skin, which could be pulled with the aid of a sheep-split into the shape of a small round bag or purse. In this context, derivations of the *kauk- stem such as káukė and kiáuklas / kiáukutas can be seen to fit in the semantic field of the loan base. Estonian words for ‘pocket’ such as tasku, vikk, 231 kalits, kulit etc. have been borrowed into estonian on the basis of words in other languages denoting pockets. Kaugas is not among them, as it belongs to a much earlier loanword stratum. The Baltic loan base *kaukāl- / *kaukōl- ‘vessel hollowed out from a tree trunk’, the successor of which is e.g. lithuanian kaukẽlė ‘wooden dish’ has been borrowed into Finnic as *kaukal-: Salaca livonian kougil, Karelian koùgõl ‘kneading trough’, votic kaukalo / kaukolo ‘trough hollowed out of wood’, Finnish kaukalo ‘trough’ etc. the sequence -Vl in these Finnic words is the representation of the loan base’s productive deverbal affix *āl- / *ōl-, one of the essential meanings of which is conveying the result of an action. An earlier explanation held kaukalo and its equivalents to be derived from the stem kauka-‘distant, far, for a long time’, on the basis of the fact that kaukalo denotes an oblong vessel. This is, however, merely a folk etymology. The Baltic loan base contains a reference to the way in which such vessels were made.

Alternatiivseid etümoloogiaid II

Author(s): Lembit Vaba / Language(s): Estonian / Issue: 61/2015

The article presents alternative etymologies for the estonian words hangeldama ‘to traffic in, speculate’ and nurg : nuru ‘blicca bjoerkna’. In Estonian etymological literature, it is claimed that the German borrowing hangeldama ‘to buy up and sell at a profit, to traffic in, speculate’ (< German handeln ‘to trade’) has undergone a phonological replacement likely on the example of hankima ‘to procure, obtain’. However, the secondary -ng- in the place of the expected -nd- is observed in a number of other borrowings, which suggests that this is a widespread optional replacement. the article gives examples of this replacement in other borrowings, such as angel ‘part of the wheel and axle of an anchor, a well, or similar, around which the wheel and axle is rotated’ – andel(i) id., cf. Low German, Dutch handel ‘handhold’, German Hantel ‘handhold’ etc. the ng / nd variation appears in native stems with a particular phonological structure, with overlapping or very similar fields of meaning, e.g. kangla : kan´gla, kangli: kan´gli – kandla : kan´dla / kandle, kandli : kan´dli ‘armpit’ and others. the nk / ng : nt / nd variation is typical of onomatopoetic/descriptive stems with over- lapping or very similar fields of meaning, e.g. põngerjas – põnder / põnderjas / põnderlas ‘brat, small child’: põng(e)- and others. In Estonian etymological literature, it is claimed that the origin of the fish nurg : nuru ‘blicca bjoerkna’ is unclear. this name is quite widespread. Also recorded is the variant stem nurr, nurra- : nurrakala. Wiedemann’s dictionary also gives the variant nuuru-k[ala], which has not been recorded in later collections of dialect data. the article draws attention to the Latvian name ņura for the loach (Nemachilus barbatus), which Latvian fish name researcher Benita Laumane regards as a borrowing, from Estonian nurg. in many languages, the names for loaches include numerous variants deriving from the notion of “beard”, in reference to the barbels around the fish’s mouth. There is no doubt that the Latvian nura, of estonian origin, also has its roots in this idea, assuming an etymological connection between estonian nurg and the word family nurrud, nurru-, nurri-, nuru- and nuri/karvad ‘whiskers, moustache’. This Estonian word family derives from the German loan base Schnurr, which appears in e.g. the compound word Schnurrbart ‘whiskers, moustache’. German Schnurrbart also denotes the fish Enchelyopus cimbrius or Gadus cimbricus, belonging to the cod family. In the Latvian name ņura ‘loach’, the word-initial consonant cluster has been reduced to a single consonant, indicating that this is an indirect loan via Estonian, not a direct loan from German. This loanword is interesting, because it demonstrates that Estonian nurr / nurg could at some point have been used to refer to the loach or some other type of fish with “whiskers”. The article also draws attention to the fact that the -g in the variant nurg is non-etymological, having developed by way of proportional analogy, e.g. urg : uru = x : nuru. Non-etymological -g after r is found in Estonian in e.g. kiirg : kiira ‘crown (of the head); nape; frontal bone’, neerg ‘kidney’, suhkarg ‘dried bread, rusk’.