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The paper which is the subject of our work we will carry out research in the field of linguistic deviations and linguistic studies that linguists recently pay greater attention. The science of language (known as general linguistics) is a theory and methodology (or set of theories and methodologies) to the study of human language. It covers linguistic theories that apply to all (or more) languages in the world, as well as linguistic methodologies applied in the scientific presentation of all (or most) languages of the world. The direct their interest to general (common) features, and considers language as a phenomen linked to the man (ie mankind) and human activity. Science, general linguistics feature prominently among the leading science of the early 21st century (in other words: the system of sciences that represent the current leadership paradigm that science and dictate the modern scientific view of the world). The science of the late 20th and early 21st century is characterized by unifying science, such as, for example, cultural studies, who study culture or knowledge as essential features of man. Scientific advances in these sciences find appropriate application in the human activities that characterize contemporary societies. Language is a common feature of the mankind. Namely, will give an overview of modern linguistic considerations within the Macedonian and Croatian language through excerption of certain lexems and frazems which are frequent in both languages, we receive a material that further analysis will compare and analyze in terms of its proper use and its etymology. We will continue to give appropriate examples that linguists consider replacing etymologically correct for a given language. Through comparative method will give the best linguistic solutions for phonetic and phonological adaptation of the respective tokens used in the Macedonian and Croatian language. We hope that this paper will contribute to the proper use of appropriate tokens in a given language.
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The collection of lyric poetry by Smajil O. Bradaric, a religion teacher from Derventa, was received in the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the middle of the last century. The collection’s inventory and stock-take was performed at the end of 1955, and it represents, in its scope, one of the most precious artifacts from the treasury of the Ethnology Department of the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Smajil Bradaric brought about a thousand units organized in five volumes, among which the greatest number of units are lyric poems recorded in north and north-west of Bosnia in the first half of the 20th century. This paper will shed light on the process of Collection creation; it will attempt to answer the questions related to the basic motivation of the collector in the decade’s poem-gathering job and related to who provided him with the most significant support. The most significant parts of Bradaric’s Collection will be presented as well as its particularities as the scope of the area from which the national treasure was collected widens to other parts of the region where Bosniaks lived, including the area of Novopazarski sandzak at the beginning of the 20th century. The most conspicuous parts of the Collection will be depicted through the careful interpretation of the chosen poems; one will also observe the ‘artistic’ intervention of the poet noticed by Bradaric, but one will also learn the poems’ topics recorded in the area of north-western Bosnia. The paper also brings the reconstruction of Bradaric’s curriculum vitae based on the material from this paper’s author latest field research. The comparative, analytical and interpretative methods based on in-depth field interviews will be applied as well as the literary-theoretical analysis of certain texts found in Bradaric’s Manuscript Collection.
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In the 1850s, the process of standardization was characteristic of Central and South European languages. In accordance with ideas of the Enlightenment, this process was going on in the spirit of purism. The creation of native terminology, above all legal one, constituted an important component of the activity of purists. German–Slavic dictionaries of legal terms influenced the development of Slavic, and non-Slavic, languages greatly. The present study discusses this process of the terminology creation, giving some typical examples.
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A. B. Šimić (1898–1925) was the most outstanding representative of the Croat expressionistic poetry, creator of the Croat verse libre. At the beginning of the twenties, similarly to a lot of Central-Eastern-European poets (Attila József, Srečko Kosovel), Šimić proved to be sensitive of social aspects and wrote a cycle of poems under the title Siromasi (Poor people). The task of the paper is to find out to what extent these poems conform to and to what extent they are different from the spinal cord of the poet’s works—poems gathered in volume Preobraženja (Metamorphosis).
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Apart from short stories, Borislav Stanković (1875–1927) finished only a play (Koštana) and a novel (Nečista krv). Still, his œuvre is consistent and full of energy.
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In this study, the political and historic tensions between Turkey and Armenia, which have become a pile of troubles, have been analysed from the perspective of Iran, and the relations between these bordering countries with a capacity of effecting the international system have been defined to set forth a soft power based solution proposal towards the future. The study has been constructed on the spill-over effect phenomenon of neo-functionalism theory, as well as on the assumption that the relations between Turkey and Armenia can be improved within the frame of international dependency. In order to achieve this target, the trust levels towards Armenia and Turkey, of the sample with a high level education in Iran, have been compared. According to the findings of the study, the pro-regime people in Iran, hence the governing elite trust Turkey more than they do to Armenia. Taking this data as a starting point, the study suggests that Turkey establishes soft power based relations with both Armenia and Iran in economic terms, despite the political balance and alliance policies between Iran and Armenia.
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At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the United States was one of the most popular destinations for emigrants from the Lithuanian territories in the Russian Empire. They emigrated because they had no economic, social, or political perspectives in their homeland, which was part of the Russian Empire and the German Reich until 1918, when Lithuania proclaimed to be independent. The Lithuanians living in the Russian Empire were subjected to persecution as they were forbidden to speak their mother tongue or learn about their native history or culture. Moreover, they could not afford to buy land and were left landless and jobless mainly because of the unfavorable Russian policy to russify and economically exploit the areas controlled by the Tsar. In the pre-World War I period, the United States was a favourable country for Lithuanian emigrants because they could enjoy economic, social, and political freedom in that country. They could earn enough money to support their families left behind in their homeland, which often followed their relatives or friends living in the new land. It was much easier for them to find a job in the United States, where the Industrial Revolution created a massive demand for new workers. Lithuanian Americans lived next to other ethnic communities, which could unrestrictedly speak their native language, profess their own religion, learn about their history, establish their own political organisations, as well as issue their own newspapers or books. Such freedom encouraged American Lithuanians to integrate within their own community and to take advantage of opportunities they had never had in their homeland. As the United States was such an attractive place for the newcomers, the number of Lithuanians leaving the Russian Empire increased sharply. This was possible mainly because new railway lines were built in the Russian Empire, including the Lithuanian areas. Such routes led to ports in Germany, from where the emigrants sailed to the United States. Before World War I, hundreds of thousands of Lithuanian emigrants arrived in the United States to start their new lives. It must be said that Lithuanian Americans were successful as an ethnic community in the United States. They were strongly integrated. They cultivated their cultural values and sent money to their families in the United States and their relatives living in the Russian Empire. Lithuanian Americans established their own political organisations, which lobbied the US government as well as other political and economic organisations to support an independent Lithuania, contributed to the establishment of a Lithuanian mission in Washington D.C. and recognition of Lithuania by the US government as an independent state on 28 July 1922. The economic and social perspectives in the United Stated encouraged most Lithuanian emigrants to stay in the United States permanently, even when Lithuania became independent in 1918, and its inhabitants were no longer persecuted because of their ethnic origin.
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Anniversary rituals commemorating WWI in the form of very symbolic red poppies developed in Great Britain in 1918-1921 and are still continued today. In the interwar period, the Great War memory was particularly dynamically commemorated because veterans, participants and witnesses of the war together with their families and friends who remembered the war were still alive and took part in anniversary rituals, particularly at the Cenotaph and Tomb of Unknown Soldier in Westminster Abbey, as well as celebrations held in the Empire’s military cemeteries. Official celebrations were always accompanied by a certain ideological message to justify the sense of immense losses suffered in result of this unreasonable carnage. For this reason, the ideal of a “honorable gentleman” and honors for serving the King and Country dominated a verbal message of the Great War, which was also reflected in the form, shape, epitaphs and inscriptions on thousands of then erected memorials and in military cemeteries in Europe and all over the world. The British memory of the Great War and the way it was commemorated, however, was diversified from the very beginning, which was confirmed, among others, by an apparent dichotomy between rituals and ceremonies held by the veterans and civilians, or war memories of men and women, as well as its image depicted in the literature and historiography shaping the picture and memory of these events.
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In Canada World War I has been called the Great War until now. As part of the British Empire, the Dominion of Canada entered the war when Great Britain declared war against Germany on 4th August 1914. During four years of this conflict over 600 000100 soldiers served in the Canadian army , among whom 66 000 were killed and app. 150 000 wounded. This article presents the most important challenges and problems connected with the process of creating a pioneer state veteran care system in Canada for veterans of Expeditionary Force fighting in the western front. In effect of efforts of the Ministry of Demobilization and Reintegration of Soldiers, an extensive (at that time) system of medical care, allowances, disability pensions and professional training for the disabled veterans was successfully established. Thus, Canada offered the highest standard of benefits offered to veterans and became a leader among other countries taking part in WWI. Nevertheless, imperfections of the pioneer system and an unfavorable economic situation in the first two years after the war and during the great crisis caused that before the outbreak of WWII, veterans had become a social group who often demonstrated their discontent.W Kanadzie I wojna światowa do dziś nazywana jest Wielką Wojną (The Great War). Jako część Imperium Brytyjskiego Dominium Kanady przystąpiło do niej z chwilą wypowiedzenia przez Wielką Brytanię wojny Niemcom 4 sierpnia 1914 roku. W trakcie 4 lat konfliktu w armii kanadyjskiej służyło ogółem ponad 600 000101 żołnierzy, z których ponad 66 000 poległo, zaś ok. 150 000 zostało rannych. Tekst niniejszy przedstawia najważniejsze wyzwania i problemy związane z procesem tworzenia w Kanadzie pionierskiego, państwowego systemu opieki nad weteranami Korpusu Ekspedycyjnego, walczącymi na froncie zachodnim. Dzięki wysiłkom Ministerstwa ds. Demobilizacji i Reintegracji Żołnierzy udało się zbudować szeroki, jak na ówczesne czasy, system opieki medycznej, zasiłków, rent i szkoleń zawodowych dla inwalidów wojennych. Tym samym Kanada stała się pod względem zakresu i wysokości oferowanych weteranom świadczeń liderem wśród pozostałych państw biorących udział w I wojnie światowej. Niemniej jednak niedociągnięcia pionierskiego systemu w połączeniu z niesprzyjającymi warunkami ekonomicznymi w pierwszych dwóch latach po wojnie oraz podczas wielkiego kryzysu sprawiły, iż przed wybuchem II wojny światowej weterani stali się grupą społeczną często demonstrującą swoje niezadowolenie.
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The article presents the Polish government’s attitude to the issue of participation of Poland in the war against Italy. On the one hand, it was affected by direct Polish interests, which required the policy of restraint (moderation) without getting involved in this conflict and, on the other hand, by Poland’s obligations as an ally of France and Great Britain, which were at war against Italy since 10th June, 1940. This problem became particularly acute when likelihood of a potential military conflict between Polish and Italian forces increased due to the deployment of Carpathian Rifle Brigade first to Palestine and then to Egypt. In result of the conviction that maintenance of political compliance between Poland and Great Britain was a supreme objective, on 19th August 1940 Polish government agreed to use Polish forces against the Italian army. Nevertheless, this consent did not entail that Poland declared war against Italy. Polish government claimed that it was exempted from such a decision because after 17th September 1939, French and British governments did not declare war against the Soviet Union against which Poland, in turn, was at war. Although the analogy invoked by the Polish government was debatable, it provided a possibility of reminding the British ally that Poland was also a victim of Soviet expansion in the face of increasingly intensive critique of the USSR after the annexation of Baltic States, Bessarabia and Northern Bucovina. The article has been mostly based on resource materials. Documents of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs from the Hoover Institute collection, whose microfilms were handed over to the Central Archives of Modern Records and then made available online in the Integrated Archive System, were particularly important. Documents from the Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum in London were also used herein and, additionally, documents from the British National Archives. A query in Italian archives was not carried out for the needs of this article; yet published Italian documents were used herein.
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The ideas of supra-tribal unity and Indian nationalism arising among Native Americans in the 20th century initiated the phenomenon defined by the American historians as modern Pan-Indianism. Its first phase occurred at the beginning of the 20th century whereas the second one, more apparent, is connected with the so called “Red Power” movement and dates back to the 1960s and 1970s. During this stormy period for the USA, when ethnic minorities started to openly manifest their postulates for equality, American Indians took their voice thereon too. Due to its extremism, American Indian Movement was the top one among many Indian groups that emerged at that time. The organization founded in 1968 by Dennis Banks and Russell Means quickly attracted American public attention due to their radical actions. The Movement was the most active in the 1960s and 1970s. At that time, relying on aggressive anti-government rhetoric, AIM created a peculiar ideology invoking Indian tribal spirituality, and proposed their own political program focusing on the issue of obtaining full sovereignty by Indian peoples and reforming federal policy towards Native Americans.
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This article is devoted to Polish historiography of the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries concerning the Extermination of Jews and Polish-Jewish relations. It presents the works of both Polish historians and representatives of other scientific disciplines published in Poland and abroad and the Polish translations of foreign scientists’ works. Nevertheless, the article is mainly focused on the output of Polish historians because their contribution thereto is the greatest. Since the end of the 20th century, many works devoted to the Extermination of Jews to a greater or lesser extent have been published. These include both works giving the general outlook of the preparatory measures and mechanism of extermination of the Jewish population during the II World War and regional studies concerning the extermination of Jewish population in individual regions or localities in Poland under German occupation. The biographies of persons who affected the lives of thousands of people (not only the perpetrators of crimes but also the employees of Jewish administration) have been published, too. The latter has given rise to a discussion among historians as to the attitude of Jewish leaders towards their fellow-citizens and the invader’s authorities. These publications also depict issues related to various activities undertaken by the Jewish authorities (both civil administration and ghetto police), which have been discussed by Polish historians. One of the continuous concerns of Polish historians is the issue that has been studied since the end of the German occupation (penal liability of the perpetrators of crimes, the functioning of ghettos, extermination camps, labour camps and concentration camps, and the lot of Jews who were kept and murdered there). Only recently the issues pertaining to the Jewish resistance movement and the economic factors determining the Extermination of Jews in Poland under German occupation have become the subject matter of discussions and verifications. Since the end of the 20th century, Polish historiography has been much more focused on Polish-Jewish relations during the German occupation. However, studies and articles concerning this issue certainly do not exhaust the subject. Polish historiography is still searching for answers to questions concerning diversified attitudes of the Polish society towards Jewish population during the Holocaust and factors that determined these attitudes. The review of various research concerning the Extermination of Jews and Polish-Jewish relations at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries accomplished by Polish historians, which is presented in this article, shows that many new documents, memoirs and reports became then the subject matter of scientific examination and analysis, and matters that had long been ignored or consistently not mentioned for different reasons started to be discussed.
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The number of converts from Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism during WWII has been discussed for years. The earliest cumulative quantification of Orthodox-to-Catholic conversions in the NDH (Independent State of Croatia) may be found in a report by Pope Pius XII of 1943, which was written by Archbishop Alojzije Stepinac. Although there are still speculations about the total number of Orthodox converts to Roman Catholic faith in the period of WWII, most controversies today are mainly concerned with the nature and ethics of the doctrinal consistency and political opportunity of the conversion itself. During the period in between the wars, the Čazma Archdeaconry consisted of several districts: Čazma, Kutina, Ivanić Grad, Grubišno Polje and Garešnica. According to the census of 1931, less than 14% of the population were Orthodox Christians. The author of the paper researches the conversions form Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism in the mentioned area during the period between 1941 and 1945. The research is based on the records from archive holdings such as the Archbishop’s Clerical Board of the Archbishop’s Archive in Zagreb, the Ministry of Justice and the NDH Ministry of Justice and Worship at the Croatian State Archive. Based on the list of names of converted persons, i.e. those who filed an application to convert in the area of 23 parishes in the territory of the Čazma Archdeaconry, the author concludes that no fewer than 3,271 Orthodox Christians filed an application to convert to Roman Catholicism, mainly from April 1941 to April 1942. According to the preserved documents from the Archbishop’s Archive in Zagreb and from the Croatian State Archive, the actual number of conversions was even larger; however, no list of names of those who filed an application to convert or of those who underwent conversion is preserved. Such a problem arose in the parish of Mikleuška where people converted collectively, in large numbers. In this paper, the author discusses the types of individual conversions. The largest number of religious conversions were made in the area of Miklueška, where 751 individuals converted. Vicar Đurić from the parish of Kaniška Iva asked the Archbishop’s Clerical Board for missionaries to help him teach and convert the Orthodox. He demanded at least six more missionaries, two for the villages of Veliko Vukovje, Malo Vukovje, Gojilo and Rogoža, two for Stupovača, Brinjani, Čaire and Kutinica, and two for Velika Bršljanica, a part of Rogoža and Mala Bršljanica. The missionaries arrived in the winter of 1941/1942. Vicar Đurić compiled a list of converts, 1,372 of them being from the area of the former Orthodox parish of Veliko Vukovje. Due to a large number of converts, there was a plan to set up a new Roman Catholic parish in Narta, in the vicinity of Čazma. As a special aspect of this research, the author observes the conversions to Greek Catholicism (in the Veliki Zdenci and Čazma area) and the reasons why the state authorities did not want the Orthodox to convert to Greek Catholicism. According to a circular issued by the Ministry of Justice and Worship, the Main Ustaša Headquarters and the State Directorate for Economic Regeneration, dated 30 July 1941, it is apparent that the “wish of the Croatian government” was that “the Orthodox do not switch the Greek Catholic religion…” The Greek Catholic priests considered that they had the right of ownership over all Orthodox churches in the district of Garešnica because of the existence of their parish in Dišnik. Bishop Janko Šimrak requested that certain churches in Moslavina, among others, the church in Lipovčani, chapels in Marča, and churches in Narta and Veliko Vukovje become part of the Greek Catholic Church. However, most of these churches were provided for by the Roman Catholic Church. The author finally concludes, on the basis of reports from some parishioners, that in most cases, conversion to Roman Catholicism was not honest, that the Serbs were mostly forced to convert to Roman Catholic faith for the sake of preserving their existence and their lives. Following the foundation of the Croatian Orthodox Church in the first half of 1942, the Orthodox generally ceased to attend Roman Catholic masses.
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The charity events carried out among and for the Macedonian Bulgarians in the period 1878–1951 were part of a common process for the country. Their roots can be sought in the National Revival period, when, by means of voluntarily self-organization, donations and alms on behalf of many Bulgarians, significant public projects were completed.
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The article present select theologically relevant statements from the book “Last Testament” of Benedict XVI and comment them in the context of his former theological works. With the reflections on the central place of the faith and on the Office of Peter as well as some eschatological thoughts is won a spiritual and theological testament of the great theologian and pope.
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During the 20th century, the defeat of the Serbian army at the Leget Field (Čevrntija) in a battle that took place in 1915 on the bank of the Sava river near Sremska Mitrovica was not a subject of a detailed critical and historiographical analysis. The significant losses of the Serbian army in fighting the Austro-Hungarian forces could not fit into the official memory of the role of the victorious Serbian army in the Great War. The process of storing the Battle of Čevrntija in the collective memory of the Serbian/Yugoslav nation was initiated during the interwar period. In 1922 an idea was launched to transform the Leget field in an artificial memory topos. The initiative came from the local community and eventually grew into the general national patriotic effort that involved the homogenization of the nation. According to the propaganda effect of cultural and political elites, the narrative of the battle at the Leget Field highlighted via visual means the required unity of the new composite nation. The culmination of the process of inauguration of the new place of remembrance was reached through formal and ideological creation of a monumental cenotaph labeled by patriotic emblems, reliefs and written accompaniments. Therefore, the abstract and purified artefact with its minimalist form expressed a powerful message about the glorious fallen at the sacred altar of the homeland. This typical visual mark confirmed the general practice of raising simplified monumental cenotaphs to commemorate the heroes of the Great War. The local traditions related to the place of battle (Srem District) and to the fallen martyrs of the nation (members of the Timok Division) were integrated into the general course of creating the single Yugoslav nation which incorporated the dual Serbian/Yugoslav identity. The afforestation of the Leget Field in 1926 marked its transformation into a well-regulated political landscape. It was in 1933 that the transformation of the Leget Field into a fabricated place of collective memory was accomplished. Thus this topos was integrated in the official memory of the subjects of the Yugoslav state in the interwar period in reference to the actual political and cultural narrative.
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In January 1914 Maurice Paléologue, a diplomat and writer, was appointed French ambassador in Russia. He spent three years in St Petersburg. In April 1917, when the February revolution changed Russia’s political landscape, Paris recalled him in order to send a new representative, uncompromised with the previous regime. During his mission in Russia, besides his diplomatic duties, Paléologue kept a very detailed diary about the events he witnessed. Before he went to Russia, he did not know much about this land and its people, but nonetheless he was very educated, talented, with a great interest in detail. In his diary he wrote about political and military issues, but also showed greater interest in little known facts about the imperial family, social life in St Petersburg etc. After the war, in 1921 Paléologue collected his notes and published them under the title La Russie des tsars pendant la Grande Guerre. His memories received great attention among French readers. A few years later, his journal was translated and published both in Russian (1923) and English (1925).
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