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The main aim of the article is to presents efforts of American women seeking employment in the U.S. foreign service after the First World War. Their attempts and endeavours to break through tradition and prejudices resulted in the 1920s to the employment of first women in the American diplomacy, despite hindrances and resistance of the governmental milieus. Ruth Bryan Owen, appointed in 1933 by Franklin Delano Roosevelt as minister plenipotentiary to Denmark, went down in history as the first American female head of American foreign post.
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Having overcome the exclusively male authority prejudices (based on notions of authority, public sphere, initiative, individuality, exhibitionism, etc., prohibited women as being against nature), the feminine writings of the eighteenth century have adopted various strategies consisting of: anonymity, more pronounced asserting with a preference of educative writings for novel (considered as marginal at the time), as well as the proclaimed delimitation to strictly female audience, but also forewords and interventions in the texts in line with the ideology of men regarding women etc. As novelists, women have always been self-conscious, but only rarely selfdefining. While they have been deeply and perennially aware of their individual identities and experiences, women writers have very infrequently considered whether these experiences might transcend the personal and local, assume a collective form in art, and reveal a history.
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The topic of witchcraft beliefs and witch trials related to them does not inspire much interest in Polish historiography. Polish historians do not appreciate the role played by the problem in everyday life of inhabitants of villages, towns and boroughs, and how it influenced interpersonal relations. Burning stakes do not fit the image of “the state without stakes”, as Poland is often called. This paper is a contribution to the history of witch trials in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of the early modern period.
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Antifašistički pokret žena u Bosni i Hercegovini u periodu od 1937-1941. godine je dio opšteg revolucdonamo-demokratskog pokreta u zemlji, koji se razvijao pod uticajem i rukovodstvom KPJ u godinama neposredno pred II svjetski rat. Činjenica da je KPJ bila organizator naprednog kretanja, da je svojom taktikom borbe protiv režima aktivizirala radne mase, da je uticala na društveno-politička zbivanja u zemlji, da je u sklopu mnogih zahtjeva postavila zahtjev političko-ekonomske ravnopravnosti žena, uticale su da se prilikom izučavanja istorije KPJ istražuje i proučava kao posebna tema problem položaja žena i nastajanje antifašističkog pokreta žena.
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Les chants ayant pour thème la vente d ’une épouse se trouvent dans de nombreuses versions des chants nationaux serbo-croates ou albanais. Quelques lversions des chants albanais ont déjà été publiées dans les collections »Le trésor national« (Visaret e Kombit, I. Tirane, 1937/8, pages 269—272) et »Les chants nationaux albanais de Kossovo et Métohija, livre I, Pristina 1952, p. 23—25 (Kangë popullore shqiptare të Kosovë-Metohis, (blêni l, Prishtinë, 1952, p, 23—25); de même, deux autres versions ont été publiées par la revue d’enseignement et de culture Hylli i dritës, Shkodër, 1924, p. 479—486; une autre variante, également albanaise, où ne se trouve pas le motif de la vente d'une épouse, mais seulement celui des retrouvailles inattendues d ’un frère et d ’une soeur séparés par l’esclavage en terre étrangère, version conservée parmi les Albanais d’Italie, a été publiée par J. Rada dans le Sivre Rapsodie Albanesi, en 1892. Cette version à motif unique conservée chez les Albanais d’Italie permet d’établir à quelle époque ce chant est vraisemblement né. A mon avis, il n’est pas exagéré de penser que l’époque quant ce chant a été crée est celle même de l’invasion turque dans les Balkans, un peu avant 1469, avant la mort de Skanderbeg et la perte par les Albanais de leur indépendance. Car l’occupation turque transforma les conditions de la vie en Albanie: alors commencèrent, par les peuples courbés sous le joug turc, de dures armées— s dures, que les gens furent parfois obligés de vendre des membres de leur famille, de payer une rançon et de subir d’autres exactions de l’occupant. Les Albanais vivant en Italie échappaient à la terreur de l’occupation turque, et à cette oppression qui forçait leurs compatriotes d’Albanie à vendre les membres de leur famille pour payer leurs dettes. De là vient notre supposition que les chants contenant à la fois les deux thèmes sont apparus dans les Balkans, là où pendant plusieurs siècles ont régné les Turcs, par leur terreur forcenée. De même nous sommes convaincus que le chant national roulant sur un seul thème — le thème unique des retrouvailles du frère et de la soeur — est plus ancien, c’est-à-dire qu’il est né avant l’invasion turque dans les Balkans (environ au XlVe siècle), comme chant de caractère général. La création d’un nouvel état de choses, différent de celui qui avait précédé l’occupation, turque, a entraîné des conditions nouvelles, qui ont donné naissance à d’autres chants, chez les deux peuples — serbo-croate et albanais — qui vivaient de façon semblable, sous le joug des Turcs — des chants de même inspiration, ayant des thèmes communs.
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Anna Brigadere (1861-1933) is not only a dramatist, a poetess, and a prose writer well-known in Latvian culture, but also a publicist who has worked in editorial offices of newspapers. In 1908-1909, A. Brigadere was the chief of the Literary supplement and of the satirical supplement "Skaidiena" Wood-yard) of newspaper "Latvija," in 1920 she' wrote editorials for newspaper "Latvijas Vēstnesis" (The Messenger of Later) and since 1916 for many years she was the compiler and editor of Daugavas kalendārs" ((The Calendar of the Daugava) later "Daugavas gadagrā-mela {The Year-book of the Daugava)). There are several basic topics close to A. Brigadere's heart about literary, ethical, social, or political issues that she discusses in her articles. The first group of articles contains the defence and explanations of her own works (about the of fairy play "Sprīdītis," about plays "Raudupiete," "Uga," "Pastari," Suvejas sapnis" (The Dream of a Dressmaker)). The second group of articles consists of essays and reminiscences about mil standing social and cultural figures of Latvia (Rūdolfs Blaumanis, Reinhold-Veics, Jānis Rozentāls, Jānis Ziemeļnieks and others). The third theme includes two issues - alcoholism and family life. A. Hit gadere compares alcohol to the Devil, and pub to hell. She claims that drinking was introduced and supported by German gentry. Woman is the victim in lilt aspect, however, it will depend on woman if alcoholism will be controlled Therefore in the 20s of the 20th century A. Brigadere brings up a necessity for new type of woman who would be able to defend her children and herself, wlv is aware of her feminine responsibility in the family, but mainly who has sell respect (article "Piezīmes par laulības problēmām" (Notes about the problem:' a married life)). During the time of the Republic of Latvia A. Brigadere emphasizes in hr articles that the real independence of the state will be achieved by the nation* selfesteem of each individual, culture, and the ideology of the country. 'I I* writer defends Latvian cultural values and their significance in the life of Ik nation (articles "Cīņa par garīgo Latviju" (Struggle for Spiritual Latvia), "IMi robežai" (Across the Border), and others). The most valuable contribution of A. Brigadere in Latvian publicistics are ll* notes of 1917-1918 "Dzelzs dūre" (Iron fist), that tell about this complicated III* torical time in Latvia, and especially in Riga. The works of A. Brigadere is , important historical evidence and an artistically powerful work of publicistics.
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The review of: Mojca Šorn, Nina Vodopivec in Žarko Lazarević (ur.), Ženske in delo: delo žensk v zgodovinski perspektivi. Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino, Ljubljana 2015, 244 strani (Zbirka Vpogledi)
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Even though Ottoman statesmen and intellectuals undertook certain endeavors in order to ensure the continuity of the state during the process of collapse, the state could not be rescued. Achievements resulting from activities and innovations they performed, would establish the ground for the developments in the newly-established Turkish Republic. The point that attracts attention here is the process about the situation of women in social life. Despite the earlier achievements, women’s acquiring the place they deserved in the public sphere and political rights would be with Ataturk. Because for Ataturk, who aimed at raising the society to the level of modern civilizations, it was necessary to progress with women and men together.
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The author of the following article analyses the controversies which took place in the end of the 1880s and in the beginning of 1890s, especially in 1892 and 1893 after the Slovenian translation of the work of youth literature Cuore (Heart) by the Italian writer Edmondo De Amicis. The book (whose translation was distinctively adapted to the Austrian sociopolitical circumstances) was fought over by the established theologian and editor of the Rimski katolik publication Anton Mahnič, who was very critical of this work, and the advocates of the book, whose most intense representative was a young teacher from Trieste, Marica Nadlišek, mother of Vladimir Bartol. The debate did not simply concern the contents of the book, but had also to do with artistic freedom and women's issues. After all, it also contained elements of an ideological conflict between two typical representatives of the Slovenian cultural struggle: a liberal (female) teacher and a Catholic priest.
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The review of: Silva Bon, Anna Di Gianantonio, Chiara Iragiacomo, Marina Rossi: Sarà ancora hello - Saj bo še vse v redu: Storie delle donne della Venezia Giulia Ira fascismo, Resistenza e dopoguerra - Prigode primorskih žena v času fašizma, odpora in povojne izgradnje. Centro Isontino di ricerca e documentazione storica e sociale "Leopoldo Casparini", Gradisca d'Isonzo, 2004, 204 strani (ilustrirano).
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The Slovene collaborationist, as indeed the entire counter-revolutionary, movement during the Second World War was an almost exclusively male affair. According to the leading ideologists, women were more than anything else expected to stay by the side of the men who fought their fight. The propaganda of General Rupnik's circle elevated the image of an ideal woman-mother who protects her home and raises a new healthy generation. Among the few active roles played by the women inside this formal collaborationist camp, one could mention the medical and administrative staff as well as those working at the block checks in Ljubljana, whereas in the so-called underground camp a mention could be made of the Girls' Legion whose members were involved in intelligence and propaganda activities.
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The review of: Splošno žensko društvo: 1901-1945: od dobrih deklet do feministk. Urednici Nataša Budna Kodrič, Aleksandra Serše. Arhiv Republike Slovenije, Ljubljana 2003. VIII, 575 strani, ilustrirano
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The paper deals with the issue of women's integration and adaptation to the new conditions in the market of labour and earning in Carniola, which were dictated by a gradual establishment of a capitalist and industrial production. An analysis has been made on the basis of the occupational statistics (Berufsstatistik) which were published by the Austrian government after the decennial, general censuses between 1880 and 1910. This analysis shows that the women in Carniola participated intensively in the new processes, that the number of earning women increased over the passing decades, not only in agriculture but also in other sectors of the economy, and that special and different conditions, from those of men, were applied to them in the labour market. The economic sector, the occupation and the manner in which women could earn was very much determined by the level of economic development in a given political district, as well as by the situation in the labour market.
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In comparison to other places in Slovenia, in occupied Ljubljana during the Second World War there appeared certain specific forms of resistance against the occupying forces. These included demonstrations in 1943 referred to as the "women's demonstrations" because their main participants were women. The women appealed to the representatives of the Italian military and political authorities, as well as the leadership of the Ljubljana bishopric, first demanding improvement of conditions for prisoners and internees, and later their release. The demonstration movement was set in motion by general distress, and in time the efforts of Ljubljana activists within the Slovenian Liberation Front (OF) became increasingly important in providing momentum for the demonstrations. These activists took what was, at least in part, the women's spontaneous appearance and turned it into an organized movement, intensified their resistance and politicised the movement.
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On the basis of oral sources, in the absence of documentation, the author presents the life of the female prisoners in the Uckermark Youth Protective Custody Camp. This camp, which was built before 1942 as a part of the Nazi Ravensbrück concentration camp, saw the arrival of the first Slovene women in 1943 and 1944. Most of these women, cynically referred to as 'camp boarders', were a few years younger than those imprisoned at Ravensbrück. In both the Uckermark and the central Ravensbrück concentration camps, women were ill-treated and humiliated through beating, arbitrary punishment and shaving of hair, while being exploited as free labor and underfed. The author further presents the organization of the former camp prisoners after the Second World War in Slovenia.
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The world, which has undergone a the cycle of rapid change since the 1990s, has begun to directly influence economic and social life with a process called globalization. In this global cycle, where large capital owners are involved, the media phenomenon is felt to be ineffective and the integration of technology and traditional media tools has become inevitable. As a matter of fact, switching to private broadcasting on television and radio has changed the content presented and formal formats with new communication technologies.
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Enacted in September 1920 in Hungary, the numerus clausus law, the first antisemitic law in postwar Europe introduced discrimination against Jews in higher education. Ostensibly a remedy for the “overcrowding” of universities, the law breached the previous, liberal era’s concept of equal citizenship. This survey of Jewish responses to the law between 1920-1928 is based on the coverage of Egyenlőség, the representative weekly of assimilated, Neolog Jews. The arguments voiced by contemporary commentators against the numerus clausus law highlight their precarious position, between fighting to maintain full membership in the Hungarian nation while also nurturing a sense of Jewish identity; ultimately, they reflect their views on the prospect of assimilation itself.
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Although the question of women’s vocational development in Galicia has been studied from many scholarly perspectives, it was rarely a subject of separate studies. In the presented article the author deals with main trends in women’s vocational development and with features that characterized the process of women’s gaining the labor market in the years 1880–1910. On the basis of the results of Austrian censuses published in both main all-Austrian and provincial periodicals, it was possible to state that women’s vocational development was of a traditional character. Little participation in that phenomenon belonged to the non-agricultural sector. In comparison to other Polish regions as well as to those of Austrian crown lands Galicia appears to have been very poor and unfavorable. (Trans.: Antoni Sarkady)
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