KRITIKË DHE BIBLIOGRAFI
Gustav Majerit, Fjalori etimologjik i gjuhës shqipe Shaban Demiraj, “Epiri, pellazgët, etruskët dhe shqiptarët”, Infobotues, 2008 “Fjalor i termave themelorë të bujqësisë”, Tiranë, 2006
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Gustav Majerit, Fjalori etimologjik i gjuhës shqipe Shaban Demiraj, “Epiri, pellazgët, etruskët dhe shqiptarët”, Infobotues, 2008 “Fjalor i termave themelorë të bujqësisë”, Tiranë, 2006
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The course in which Albanian literary language is formed has passed through different difficulties. Endeavours of cultural activists, those of pen and ink of Albanian language preceded and prepared terrain for holding of Literature Committee in Shkodra (1916-17), while this Committee has made the most serious endeavour of time for creation of common national language. Gjergj Fishta, one of most influential activists of pen and ink in these processes will develop broad pragmatic activity in mission of Albanian language conservation and cultivation. Following the tradition of writers from Rilindja “Renaissance”, he will work with great patriotic devotion to promote further the work that has been initiated by them in the field of language. Definition one literary language for one nation always has represented and represents difficult and complex issue to be solved, since it presupposes compromise and compromises are never easy. This has been difficult for Albanians, too. Although the decision of the Literary Committee of Shkodra for Elbasan vernacular being common literary language for all Albanians has been accepted, Gjergj Fishta, active member of this Committee, will abandon this decision. Why? This study attempts to find reasons for Fishta’s distance toward Literary Committees’ of Shkodra decision.
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Contrairement à ce qui pensait jusqu’a ce jour, le système des terminaisons personnelles du présent, de l’imparfait et du passé simple de l’indicatif dans le Meshari (Missel) de Gjon Buzuku, dans l’ouvrage mais surtout hors (par rapport à l’albanais standard), présente une mobilité évidente. On constate dans l’ouvrage un mélange des formants personnels aussi bien à l’intérieur d’un même type structurel de thèmes qu’en dehors de lui. Des formants personnels caractéristiques de verbes se terminant par une voyelle s’étendent aussi à des verbes se terminant par une consonne. Cette situation linguistique peut être expliquée par deux raisons principales: a) Par la tendance à généraliser des formants personnels plus généraux et plus expressifs. b) Par la tendance à thématiser des formes personnelles données plus usuelles et plus expressirees. Ces raisons, essentiellement de caractère analogique, ont été accompagnées par des influences phonétiques, rendant le système ancien de Buzuku assez mouvant et varié.
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Many elements in the corpus of the Albanian Kanun have played the role of a literary myth in the Albanian prose. Hence, thanks to the myth of the guest, blood feud, and the given word (besa) the Kanun comes in the Albanian prose as the common code of an Albanian timeless sense of belonging, which takes the value of the sacred in relation to the Albanian spiritual identity. Anyway, particularly in the prose “Prilli i thyer” by Ismail Kadare, “Andrra e Pretashit” by Father Anton Harapi, “Gjonomadhë e Gjatollinj” by Mitrush Kuteli, “Gjaku” and “The Guest” by Ernest Koliqit, as well as in the well-known comments of Father Gjergj Fishta and Koliqi, the appearance of the Kanun element is outlined in the form of a new myth which takes over a multiplicity of functions: that of a literary myth, a social myth, a political myth, etc. It is inside this refunctionalized myth that the Albanian writers ‘invented” their new national mirror, where the Albanian citizen, independently of the time he lived in, should look at himself and therefore The Other. It was a recurrent invitation to a common sanctity.
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This article is concerned with the word order problems of clauses of time and place and the theme–rheme division of these subordinate clauses. The questions of word order in these sentences are not so well treated, while questions of actual division are not treated at all. The former syntactic analyses of such clauses have not arrived at the formulation of fixed rules concerning the order of words in these sentences. In fact, this task is especially difficult to be carrying out in a free word-order language as Albanian. Nevertheless, based on samples from literary works the author of this paper has managed to explain the causes of a fixed order of words in these clauses. Among these reasons, the first are the logical ones: e.g. it is well known that in the cause–effect relation, the cause must anticipate the effect and this is reflected in the order of subjuncts and of preposed modifiers of the subordinate clause. In other cases, the wordorder of the members of the clause depends on structural reasons, e.g. when the adjunct is placed before the predicate of the subordinate clause, in order to be as close as possible to the predicate of the main clause. In other cases, the movement of the adjunct before the predicate is conditioned by the need of the subject to be part of the rheme. Structural reasons also come in the first place as concerns the predicate– subject or subject–predicate order in subordinate clauses. Some of subordinators of time and place keep intact their meanings, so that the postposition of the subject in the adverbial clause is somewhat justified, because it is known the fact that when an adjunct is placed at the beginning of the sentence, the subject goes to its end. There are also other factors that influence the postposition of the subject; such factors are the lexical nature of the predicate (e.g., verbs of movement want their subject after them), the mood of the verb (verbs in the subjunctive mood want the subject placed after them), the kind of subordinators (the si, sa, tek conjunctions don’t take a post posed subject). But more important are structural reasons. For example, in clauses of time with such verbs as fle, the auxiliary jam, jam në gjumë, the modal arrij + object and generally verbs that are closely related with the subject etc., this last comes before the predicate. In the position of subject at the beginning of the sentence there are other factors that influence, such as the expansion of the noun phrase with an external modifier, when the subject of the subordinate clause is part of the subject of the main clause, when as a subject of a post posed subject serves a pronoun etc.
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Një nga idetë më themelore të Sosyrit mbi gjuhën, siç është ajo e karakterit sistemor e strukturor të saj në suazën e shenjës, e huazuar prej tij nga shkencat e përpikta e të zbatuara dhe e futur në studimin pothuajse të çdo rrafshi të gjuhës, u bë tërheqëse edhe për studiues që mëtuan të shqyrtonin shtresa më specifike të leksikut e, në mënyrë të veçantë, leksikun terminologjik. I pari që veçoi një fushë të leksikut, në të cilën mund të zbatohej plotësisht koncepti i Sosyrit mbi gjuhën “ si sistem shenjash për të shprehur idetë dhe si sistem i mbyllur në vetvete “, ishte dijetari austriak, Eugjen Vyster. Vysteri i argumentoi dhe i konkretizoi mendimet e veta në mënyrë të hollësishme në veprën e mbrojtur si temë doktorate në vitin 1931 “ Standardizimi ndërkombëtar në teknikë “.
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This work is built as a discussion about the evaluation on the book Historia e letërsisë shqiptare (History of Albanian Literature), an edition of the Academy of Sciences of People’s Socialist Republic of Albania, in which the poem Lahuta e malcis (Lute of the mountains) of Gjergj Fishta is appraised as anti-Slavic propaganda. Contrary to such thesis there is still no argumentum in this discussion even though this thesis id not founded in the text of the poem. The official policy of the Albanian state at the beginning of the 80s was no more pro-Slavic, but such of an evaluation aimed at the undoing of Fishta’s personality and at the same time the desecration of the poems values, which even censured, still came about as a ghost of a myth. Leaving aside the historical analysis of real events that are wreathed with fictional episodes of the subject, we are concentrated on the analysis of aesthetical aspects that illuminate the attitude of the poem towards chauvinism. Through this interpretive act we hope to have argued that to chauvinism of neighboring Montenegrins, the poem does not respond in any line or stream of consciousness that can transmit chauvinistic pathos by the Albanian counterpart. On the contrary, the objective spirit and upper ethics of the poet makes even the defending war virtues poeticized and also the heroism of Montenegrins when this population does have high values of freedom and fights for defending itself from ottoman invaders. But, when they make invading warfare against Albanians, the poet discovers decisively their chauvinism and places them in the same plan of hatred and negative evaluation as the ottomans. Our thesis argument has been based on a number of illustrations taken from the text.
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In this article, we have presented a new approach to the analysis of adverbial constructions, which are often viewed as circumstants or adjuncts in Albanian linguistics. We argue that not all adverbials are circumstantial elements. We have proved that adverbial phrases have the functions of complements and adjuncts in the syntactic structure of a sentence. Adjuncts have been defined as nonobligatory constructions and complements as obligatory. It was shown that the sentence behaves distributionally just as though the adjunct wasn’t there. Complementizer phrases can be adjuncts as well, having the function of defining the proposition expressed semantically in the main clause.
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This article deals with the phenomenon of antonymy and homonymy in the Albanian lexicon of plant and animal world. There are analyzed in it the kinds of oppositions of the nominations of this world, based on different characteristics and features of plants and animals. Antonymic nominations are observed on the semantic level and on that of morphological expression. Homonymic nominations of these spheres have a wide use and large scale in different fields of the Albanian lexicon. Homonyms are also viewed from their degree of phonetical concordance and from the angle of their usage in communication. There, they enrich furthermore the modes of expression in Albanian.
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Lasgush was one of the most popular Albanian literature writers during 1930 – 1940. His first poems were published in the papers of the Albanian colonies in emigration. After these phase he published in most of the Albanian magazines inside country. These poems attracted attention with their original poetical colloquialism, different from the other writers. The critical reception of the poetry of Lasgush appears contrastive, including extreme different opinions. He can be classified in three levels of valuations: maximum of valuation, up to worshiping him, attempts to an objective valuation with oscillation between enthusiasm and doubt, almost complete denial. The most distinctive representative of the firs level is M. Kuteli, of the second level is S. Shundi, of the third level is K. Maloki. According to the reception aesthetic we can say that the poetry of Lasgush appears in dichotomy: one side doesn’t want the change of the expectation horizon, and the other side breaks completely the usual horizon of literature expectation.
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In the second part of this work, is intended to be shown and explained the main moments of the reception of Gjergj Fishta’s literary work and his personality during the period of totalitarian communist domination, 1946-1990. Just at the head of his work, the scholar points out that after political liquidation of S. Maleshova (February 1946) and the publication on March 1947 of “The word of editorial office” in the magazine “Our Literature”, where the writers were differented in “progressive” and “reactionary” (according to their political points of view and attitudes), starts the about half century period of total negation, denigration and complete formal exception of Fishta’s work from the communicating with reader of his people. In different editions of this period, were poured, profusely the most oppressive accusations and anathemas against this writer and the essence of his work. In all this arsenal of anathemas and denigrations, incited from nonscientific interests, accusations of political and ideological character, predominated. In the meanwhile, for sake of the truth, the scholar has underlined the fact that in albanian diaspora the literary work of Gj. Fishta is studied, is estimated and commemorated as it merits. For the objectivity and scientific deepness in the treatment are distinguished the writingss of N. Resuli, E. Koliqi, M. Camaj etc.
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Among Albanian linguistic disciplines, syntax is the less developed one. The main reason of this backwardness is the interruption of contacts of our linguistics with developments in European and American linguistics, developments that have been tremendous these last 60 years, especially in the filed of syntax. As a result, for the Albanian students of language a number of key concepts of syntax have remained unknown, at the time when linguists in America and Europe based on these concepts made syntax a pilot discipline for other linguistic sciences. Such concepts are those of exocentric and endocentric constructions, the phrase (syntagma) and valence. The distinction between endocentric constructions (tatpurusha and dwandwa) and exocentric ones (bahuvrihi) were made by old Indian grammarians. These two concepts, which have been used even by our grammarians in the analysis of compound words, were used by Leonard Bloomfield also in the field of syntax. According to him, exocentric constructions are those where “the resultant phrase belongs to the form-class of no immediate constituent”, while endocentric constructions those where “the resultant phrase may belong to the same form-class as its head or center”, and have the same function as its head, as in fresh milk, poor John, which are noun phrases, because their head is a noun (milk, John) and may function as the subject of the sentence: we can say John is pleased or Poor John is pleased. From the introduction of the concept of endocentric constructions in syntax derives the concept of the syntactic phrase, as e syntactic unit between the sentence and the member of the sentence (syntactic word). This new concept was made part of syntactic analysis in the two sides of the Atlantic at the time when our syntacticians operated with only two last units. The concept of togfjalësh, introduced in our syntactic studies in the late sixties by S. Floqi, did not help to describe in depth the syntax of Albanian, because this concept entered under the influence of the Soviet linguistics, represented only one type of phrases, the phrase whose two constituents are meaningful words, that is nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs. Consequently, syntactic studies carried by Albanian syntacticians based on this concept did not treat prepositional phrases, phrases with only the heads, such as shirat and po fillojnë in the sentence shirat po fillojnë, or phrases with only one head, as Ecim. Natë etc., those remained unstudied or, in the best case were treated as separate compartments of syntax. The result of all this was that syntactic descriptions of Albanian made till nowadays have lost their coherence and generalization power.
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Mehmet Elezi’s “Albanian Language Dictionary” is a new worthwhile work. There are included about 41.000 words and expressions not found in the “Dictionary of Today Albanian Language” published in 1980. To this reason he has browsed books, journals, intentionally left aside by the dictatorship regime such as “Eposi i Kreshnikëve”, “Visaret e Kombit”, “Fjalori i Bashkimit”, “Kanuni i Lekë Dukagjinit”, collected by Shtjefën Gjeçovi, “Kanuni i Skenderbegut” collected by Frano Ilia and other authors as well who were prohibited in that regime, as Gjergj Fishta, Faik Konica, Martin Camaj, Ernest Koliqi, Nikollë Gazulli, Anton Harapi, Sejfulla Malëshova, Arshi Pipa, Bilal Xhaferri and many others. This dictionary is distinguished for its universal scientific values. These values are noticed in the inventory of many rare words and phraseologies which in many cases express the habits, traditions, mentality, myths, the religions, on the whole everything belonging to a nation, highlighting thus an important part of the Albanian life. Another important value of this work is that for the first time in an explanatory dictionary fruitful efforts have been taken to perforate into the word origin. This is not only an appreciated and manifold initiative but as well it propounds the obligation for such a practice in a comprehensive dictionary in the future. To the field of etymology, this dictionary with rare words, phraseologies and various explanations helps to clarify in many cases the word origin. In this article, considering the material presented in this dictionary are given some etymological explanations for the words: ajem ‘to swell”, anzë ‘wasp”, arza ”like e bear”, aputë ‘lace”, kërdhokull “hip bone”, bigë “fork” etc.
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In order to decide the ethnic origin of a given community, language may be used as an important element. Comparing the speech of a given community with the speech of its neighbouring communities makes it possible to answer the above question. If the majority of linguistic features of a territorial variant is found in other neighbouring variants, than this is a proof that these communities are of the same ethnic origin. This is the path we have traced in our article to determine the ethnicity of the Himara municipality, which comprises the Himara town and Palassa, Dhermi, Vuno, Ilias, Pilur, Kudhes and Qeparo villages. The Himara town, Dhermi and Palassa villages are bilingual in Greek and Albanian, while the other villages are monolingual, but either in bilingual villages Albanian is the mother tongue of their speakers. The Albanian linguists in general have agreed that the Himara speech is part of the Southern Tosk dialect and more precisely in its main subgroup, in the Lab subdialect”. Since until now nobody has undertaken a study of this speech, the authors undertook the burden to describe the phonetic, morphologic, syntactic and lexical systems of this speech. Phonetically, the Himara speech is more similar with the speech of Argirocastra and of Ciamuria, first because of its inventory of six vowels; other phonetic features are found also in some of neighbouring speeches or in Southern Tosk. In its morphological system, the Himara speech preserves some old features found only in peripheric Southern subdialects, such as Ciamurishte and Arberesh of Albanian diaspora of Italy and Greece. Such features are the neutral gender of mass nouns as qumështit, djathët, vajt(ë), ujt(ë), mishtë etj.; the feminine gender of nouns litare, djepe, turpje, vërri, etc. that in other Lab spokens and in Tosk are of masculine gender; the old objective case of masculine nouns djalë, lumë, etc.: djalën, kalën, lumën, ballën, fshatnë, gardhnë, malnë, ftuan, etc.; the definite suffix -t in the forms of the plural genitive (lisavet, kalavet, malevet, etc.); the absence of the epenthetic sound -vin nouns ending in a consonant (miqet, pleqet, krushqet, etc.); the high frequence of the suffix -ra (pambukëra, plëhëra, drëra, detra, folera, etc.); the plural suffix -j in place of -nj: qirij, ullij, bij, kallij, etc.; the plural ending -ërë (kunetërë, meçërë, çamërë, etc.); the suffix -jë (dekëjë, humbëjë, ngrënëjë, sëmundëjë, etc.), which is only a step away from the suffix -lë of the old Albanian; the derivative suffix -ejë where other dialects have -esë: ngarkejë, shtrejë, etc.
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Islam has been an important element legitimising the political power of Malay sultans since its arrival to the Malay Peninsula at the beginning of the 16th century. In late 18th and 19th century it became a crucial factor—alongside the institution of the monarchy and oral tradition (adat)—shaping and preserving the identity of the nation colonised by the Europeans. The 20th century brought the development of Islam conceived also as an ideology of radical dissidents—an ideology of contesting colonial society, racially alien immigrants from China and India, moral corruption prevailing in sultans’ courts and in government circles. The increasing openness of Malays to the world has contributed to a progressive breakdown of Islam into two hostile streams.
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The Western world, both political and academic, had long been waiting for a Chinese adaptation to Western norms and values. However, as this article presents, Chinese intellectuals and experts not only did not follow in the Western footsteps, but—being strongly diversified among themselves—have prepared a unique development model sui generis, which is the crux of this discourse. China had already carved out a unique model of modernisation and transition once, in the era of the first “survival phase of reform” (1978–2010). Now, within the framework of domestic debate on the Chinese model of development (Zhongguo moshi), extensively elaborated on in this study, the China-specific development and modernization model is on the agenda again, partly under the umbrella of “a great renaissance of the Chinese nation,” equalised in Beijing with the “Chinese dream,” and partly in response to very pragmatic and realist notions proposed by other experts. However, this new model is not fully implemented yet, which for an autocratic regime means a very delicate moment in history, as Alexis de Tocqueville once noted.
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Intensified military action in Ukraine in mid-2014 meant higher casualties among soldiers and civilians, including 298 victims of the tragic crash of the Malaysia Airlines passenger plane. This article begins with a presentation of the developments of 17 July 2014, technical data about flight MH17 and initial international reaction. The focus, however, is on the controversial issue of criminal and material liability of the perpetrators in terms of international law, with the first aspect relating primarily to the jurisdiction of International Criminal Court and a potential trial in The Hague, and the second concerning compensation for families of the victims. The conclusions on the principle of sovereignty and state control of airspace during armed conflict could be a starting point for further research.
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The article deals with the functioning of the National Unity Government in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. The formation of a government embracing both candidates that participated in the second round of 2014 presidential elections—Dr Ashraf Ghani as the president and Dr Abdullah Abdullah as the “CEO”—ensured a peaceful transfer of power, but a closer look at the National Unity Government reveals threats to its long-term stability. Those are rooted in the traditional expectations of the winners, as Ghani’s advocates look forward to high positions and money. At the same time, Ashraf Ghani is alienating some of his supporters, probably due to his genuine determination to reform the Afghan state. This could undermine his position, strengthening former president Hamid Karzai, who still has a say in internal Afghan politics, or Abdullah Abdullah. Another factor undermining the stability of the government in Kabul is the ongoing conflict with the Taliban and the presence of Daesh representatives in Afghanistan. Hence this government is an important experiment in the political history of the country, in particular due to the peaceful transfer of power, but the process has not been completed yet.
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The text focuses on developments in Crimea in 2014, with the authors examining the steps launched by the actors in the aspect of international law. In February 2014 separatist tendencies were on the rise in the Crimean Peninsula, which at the time was part of the Ukrainian state, first and foremost as a result of the 2014 Ukrainian revolution. In consequence, Crimea was annexed by the Russian Federation, and the authors look at Russian action from a legal point of view, taking into account the accepted provisions of international law.
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